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Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page ii

About Island Press

Island Press is the only nonprofit organization in the United States whose
principal purpose is the publication of books on environmental issues and
natural resource management. We provide solutions-oriented information
to professionals, public officials, business and community leaders, and con-
cerned citizens who are shaping responses to environmental problems.

In 2006, Island Press celebrates its twenty-first anniversary as the leading

provider of timely and practical books that take a multidisciplinary
approach to critical environmental concerns. Our growing list of titles
reflects our commitment to bringing the best of an expanding body of lit-
erature to the environmental community throughout North America and
the world.

Support for Island Press is provided by the Agua Fund, The Geraldine R.
Dodge Foundation, Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, The William and
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John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation,The Marisla Foundation,
The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation,
The Curtis and Edith Munson Foundation, Oak Foundation,The Overbrook
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The opinions expressed in this book are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily reflect the views of these foundations.
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page iii

Defending the
Environment
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page iv
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page v

Defending
the
Environment:
Civil Society
Strategies
to Enforce
International
Environmental
Law

Linda A. Malone
& Scott Pasternack

Island Press
Washington • Covelo • London
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page vi

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

(c) 2005 Linda A. Malone and Scott Pasternack

Previously published in hardcover by Transnational Publishers, Inc. in

2004

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright

Conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by
any means without permission in writing from the publisher: Island
Press, 1718 Connecticut Ave., N.W.,Washington, DC 20009

ISLAND PRESS is a trademark of The Center for Resource Economics.

(CIP info to come from Production Dept.)

Printed on recycled, acid-free paper

Manufactured in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page vii

For Erin and Corey always, for their children,

and in memory of Joan Fitzpatrick.
For Deb, who tolerated all those
just-fifteen-more-minute hours.
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page viii
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page ix

CONTENTS

Foreword by Philippe Sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

Preface by Alexandre Kiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
About the Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
I. Layout of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
II. Layout of Each Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
III. Strategy Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A. Petition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Letter Petition or Letter Request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
C. Written Statement (Includes Issue Papers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
D. Oral Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
E. Critique of National Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
F. Amicus Curiae Brief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
IV. Summary of Sources of International Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Chapter 1: Exercising Environmental Human Rights and

Remedies in the United Nations and Regional
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
I. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
II. Determining Valid Environmental Human Rights Claims . . . . . . . . 9
III. Determining Where to File the Environmental Human
Rights Claim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
IV. Submitting the Environmental Human Rights Claim
to the Selected Forum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
A. United Nations System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1. Human Rights Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2. Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural
Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3. Committee for the Elimination of Racial
Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4. Committee for the Elimination of Discrimination
Against Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5. Committee on the Rights of the Child . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6. Commission on Human Rights and UN Special
Rapporteurs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

ix
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page x

x • Defending the Environment

7. Subcommission on Promotion and Protection

of Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8. Commission on the Status of Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9. The 1235 and 1503 Procedures for Dealing
with Gross Human Rights Violations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
10. UNESCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
11. International Labor Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
B. African System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
C. American System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights . . . . . . . . 50
a. Scope of Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
i. Party to the American Convention . . . . . . . . . . . 51
ii. Non-Party to the American Convention. . . . . . . . 52
b. Prerequisites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
c. Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2. Inter-American Court of Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
a. Eligibility to File Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
b. Contentious Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
c. Advisory Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3. Additional Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
a. Amicus Curiae. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
b. Lobbying OAS Members to Pursue Inter-State
Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
D. European System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1. European Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2. European Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3. Dispute Resolution Under the European
Social Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4. European Parliament and the Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
V. Newly Emerging Rights and Fundamental Rights
Recognized as Customary International Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
VI. Seeking Enforcement if a Claim Prevails and a
Nation-State Fails to Comply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
A. United Nations System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1. Notify the UN High Commissioner for
Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2. Encourage the HCHR to Notify the UN Secretary
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3. Encourage the UN Security Council to Take
Enforcement Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
B. African System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
C. American System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
D. European System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page xi

Table of Contents • xi

1. Council of Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2. European Parliament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
VII. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
VIII. Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
A. Sources of International Law Applicable to Environmental
Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
B. Jurisdiction of Human Rights Body Over the Claim . . . . . . 107
C. Private Rights of Action Available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Chapter 2: Advocating for International Finance and Trade

Institutions to Adhere to Environmental and
Public Health Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
II. World Bank Inspection Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
A. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
B. Eligibility to Submit a Request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
C. Submitting the Request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
D. Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
E. Locating Requests for Inspection, Inspection Panel
Reports, and Management Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
III. The International Finance Corporation—Compliance
Advisor Ombudsman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
A. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
B. Eligibility to Submit a Complaint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
C. Submitting the Complaint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
D. Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
E. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
F. CAO and the Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
IV. Inter-American Development Bank—Independent
Investigation Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
A. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
B. Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
C. Eligibility to Submit a Request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
D. Submitting the Request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
E. Deciding Whether to Authorize an Investigation. . . . . . . . . 145
1. Eligibility Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2. Frivolity Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3. Management Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4. Investigation Authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5. Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
F. Investigation and Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1. Panel Investigation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2. Management Reply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3. Board’s Report and Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page xii

xii • Defending the Environment

V. Asian Development Bank—Accountability Mechanism . . . . . . . 147

A. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
B. Consultation Phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
C. Compliance Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
1. Filing Compliance Review Requests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2. Compliance Review Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3. Remedial Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4. Requester and Third Party Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
VI. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development—
Independent Recourse Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
VII. European Parliament—Committee on Petitions . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
VIII. African Development Bank Group—
Independent Review Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
IX. North American Commission on Environmental
Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
B. Eligibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
C. Making a Submission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
D. Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
X. Canada-Chile Commission on Environmental Cooperation . . . . 163
A. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
B. Eligibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
C. Making a Submission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
D. Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
XI. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Chapter 3: Preventing New International Trade and Investment

Dispute Resolution Mechanisms from Undermining
Current Environmental and Public Health
Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
A. The Impact of Increased Globalization on Environmental
and Public Health Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
B. Strategically Targeting Globalization Processes . . . . . . . . . . 170
C. Why New Strategies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
II. Strategy No. 1: Amicus Curiae Submissions to Trade and
Investment Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
A. Strategy Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
B. Bodies to Whom Such Submission May Be Made. . . . . . . . . 172
1. World Trade Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
2. NAFTA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
a. NAFTA Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
b. NAFTA Chapter 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page xiii

Table of Contents • xiii

3. Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

4. Court of Justice of the Andean Community . . . . . . . . . 180
5. EU Court of Justice and Court of First Instance . . . . . . 180
6. Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
(COMESA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7. East African Community Court of Justice (EAC) . . . . . . 181
8. Economic Community of Western African States
(ECOWAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
9. Others (APEC, OECS, Mercosur, BITs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
C. Preparing and Filing Your Amicus Curiae Brief . . . . . . . . . 183
III. Strategy No. 2: Persuading a Domestic Government to
File a Trade or Investment Dispute to Prevent the
Weakening of Environmental or Public Health Laws . . . . . . . . . 184
IV. Strategy No. 3: Submitting Public Comments to Environmental
Reviews of Trade and Investment Agreements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
V. Strategy No. 4: Demanding Transparency and Public
Participation from Domestic Governments on Trade and
Investment Issues Adversely Affecting the Environment
and Public Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
VI. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Chapter 4: Encouraging Secretariats of Multilateral

Environmental and Public Health Agreements to
Enforce Current International Environmental
Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
II. Strategy No. 1: Making Submissions Pursuant to Specific
MEA Processes Open to Non-Party Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
III. Strategy No. 2: Petitioning MEA Secretariats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
A. Strategy Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
B. Creating the Petition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
1. Select a Treaty Secretariat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
2. Prepare an Argument on the MEA Secretariat’s
Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
3. Present Your Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
IV. Strategy No. 3: Lobbying State Parties to Initiate Dispute
Resolution Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
V. Strategy No. 4: Participating at MEA Conferences of the
Parties or in Appropriate Bodies of Charter-Based
Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
A. United Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
B. United Nations Environmental Program (“UNEP”) . . . . . . . 199
C. United Nations Division for Sustainable Development . . . . 201
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page xiv

xiv • Defending the Environment

D. United Nations Food and Agriculture (“FAO”). . . . . . . . . . . 201

E. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (“UNESCO”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
F. Organization of American States (“OAS”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
VI. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
VII. Table–Sample MEAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Chapter 5: Enforcing International Environmental Law in

Tribunals of General Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
II. International Court of Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
III. The Law of the Sea Treaty Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
IV. The International Criminal Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
V. Regional Tribunals of General Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
A. European Union Court of Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
B. African Union Court of Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
VI. International Arbitral Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
A. Permanent Court of Arbitration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
B. International Court of Environmental Arbitration and
Conciliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
VII. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

Chapter 6: Enforcing International Environmental Law Through

Domestic Law Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
II. Non-Litigation Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
A. Corporate Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
B. Participating on Advisory Committees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
C. Demanding Transparency from Domestic
Governments on Matters Adversely Affecting the
Environment Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
D. Calling for U.S. Federal Agency Compliance with
Executive Order 12114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
E. Lobbying Congress to Impose Environmental Standards
on Appropriations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
F. Pelly Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
III. Litigation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
A. The Alien Tort Claims Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
B. Extraterritorial Application of United States
Environmental Laws to U.S. Government Activity
Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
1. Common Law Tort Actions Against a Domestic
Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page xv

Table of Contents • xv

2. Administrative Procedures Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

a. Claims of a Violation of the National
Environmental Policy Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
b. Claims that an Agency Action, Finding or
Conclusion Made Pursuant to Any Other U.S.
Federal Environmental Law Except NEPA
Was Arbitrary, Capricious and/or an Abuse of
Agency Discretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
3. Citizen Suit Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
C. Court Action to Demand Transparency on Domestic
Actions Affecting the Environment Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
D. Court Action to Assure Environmental Representation on
Federal Advisory Committee Act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
E. General Obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
IV. Newly Independent States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
V. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Appendix: List of Practitioner Experts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page xvi
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page xvii

FOREWORD

I am pleased to introduce this impressive exposition of legal strate-

gies and resources that civil society can use internationally in its efforts to
protect the environment and health. International environmental initiatives
undertaken by governments will remain marginal unless they are addressed
in an integrated manner with those international economic endeavors that
continue to retain a primary role in international law-making and institu-
tional arrangements. The involvement of civil society has helped to bal-
ance long term environmental goals and shorter term economic priorities.
This book contributes greatly to the continued involvement of civil soci-
ety in strengthening these international environmental obligations by pro-
viding civil society with useful legal tools for use in both the international
and domestic arenas.The focus on enforcement, particularly by civil soci-
ety, is now central to the evolution of an effective international environ-
mental law.
Malone and Pasternack identify options for enhancing accountability
for environment and health obligations at international and domestic lev-
els. Problem resolution strategies are offered in numerous arenas—human
rights commissions, international financial institutions, trade regimes, treaty
dispute resolution processes, and international and domestic courts and
tribunals—all with the aim of promoting access to environmental infor-
mation.The emphasis is strongly on the practical application of environ-
mental claims.This is apparent from the book’s emphasis on the pursuance
of an environmental claim through multilateral environmental and public
health agreements. Chapter 5, for example, assesses the selection of an
international court or tribunal, such as the International Court of Justice,
the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, the International Criminal
Court and the Permanent Court of Arbitration, as well as the International
Court of Environmental Arbitration and Conciliation.
In providing a framework Malone and Pasternack identify and assess
three approaches to the protection of non-human species and habitats
through environmental human rights.The examination provides a practi-
cal outline for using international human rights law and institutions, such
as UNESCO, the UN Rapporteur on Health and the UN Human Rights
Committee.They also propose that international financial institutions such
as the World Bank should be encouraged to adhere to applicable environ-
mental and health standards.The book then examines formal dispute res-
olution processes for enforcement of environmental protection standards.

xvii
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page xviii

xviii • Defending the Environment

In addition to this most useful discussion of international strategies,

the concluding chapter identifies domestic tools for implementing an inte-
grated strategy.The discussion of the usage of domestic mechanisms ranges
from public information campaigns and the Code of Corporate Citizenship
to the Alien Tort Claims Act. Again, the book addresses the proper choice
of forum and the complexities of U.S. federal courts for the enforcement
of environmental claims that have international affects. They encourage
the use of the Administrative Procedures Act and the National Environmental
Policy Act as a basis for these claims and also promote use of the Freedom
of Information Act as a tool for access to environmental information.
This is a comprehensive and accessible work that will be of consid-
erable utility to practitioners and others who are interested in the enforce-
ment of environmental and health standards. Identifying the mechanisms
for bringing to an end international environmental violations, as well as
identifying the substantive elements of what may constitute a violation,
are two vital steps to environmental improvement, sustainable develop-
ment, and the promotion of health.This book guides the reader to the crit-
ical third stage—meaningful and committed enforcement. The book
promises to make a serious, useful and sustained contribution to the devel-
opment of international environmental law.
Philippe Sands QC
Professor of Laws, University College London
Barrister, Matrix Chambers
Malone_book_4-1.qxd 1/19/06 7:47 PM Page xix

PREFACE

The objective of this volume is to aid those who seek to defend the
environment. It succeeds very well in this purpose, describing the differ-
ent procedures in international and American fora that may be used by
environmental activists.The exhaustive review of the possibilities which
can be used by all elements of civil society and of the rules which may be
invoked presents at the same time an overall picture of international envi-
ronmental law, a relatively new field of law. In addition to its practical use-
fulness, this work thus also contributes to a better understanding of that
legal system, whose age can be estimated at little more than thirty years.
The importance of the legal protection of the environment is gener-
ally recognized and based on an understanding that care for the survival
of our biosphere is a fundamental part of the common concern of human-
ity. Still, such recognition has not resulted so far in the establishment of
proper international institutions or tribunals to ensure compliance with
the norms of the new branch of international law. This enhances the impor-
tance of the possibility to utilize compliance mechanisms outside envi-
ronmental institutions, in favor of those where the development of
international law is more advanced, like the international protection of
human rights. Even where mechanisms are more recent, such as those con-
cerning international trade, the availability of quasi-judicial proceedings
allows environmental claims to be heard.
The description of such mechanisms and the opportunities they offer
for environmental protection also leads to some thinking on the nature of
present international law as a whole.The indirect means for defending the
interests of the environment, which can be used, may recall the reaction
of a living organism which lacked a proper organ necessary to serve a vital
function and which then developed another organ to ensure its continued
health and well-being. Such reaction is proof of the importance of the given
function, but also of the vitality and the capacity of adaptation of the whole
system. In other words, outside its practical value, the research by the
authors of the present book shows both the fundamental importance of
environmental protection by international means, and the strength of pres-
ent international society. It demonstrates that despite certain negative man-
ifestations, international law is able to defend fundamental interests of the
whole of mankind.
Thus, while some derive a negative impression from the lack of proper
international legal mechanisms to ensure compliance with international

xix
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