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 PETER CONNOLLY

G R EEC E
, AN ID RO E
#:~ . .. AlT A.
• •
 Con t en t s

Greece a n d Macedonia
Chapter 1 T he City States 800-360 BC 10

Part 1 The States at War II

Part 2 The Phalanx 37
Part 3 The Phalanx in the Field 44
Part 4 Armour and Weapons 51

Chapter 2 M acedon 360- 140 BC 64

Part 1 T he M acedonian Wars 64

Part 2 The New Macedonian Army 68
Part 3 The L ater Macedonian Army 75

Italy a n d T he Wester n Med iter ranean

Chapter 1 T he Rise of Rome 800-275 BC 86

Part 1 T he Struggle for Italy 87

Part 2 The Italian Military Systems 91

Chapter 2 Rome 275-140 B C 129

Part 1 T he Roman Army 160 BC 129

Part 2 T he Great Wars 143

The Ro man E m p ire

Chapter 1 T h e Empire 140 BC-AD 200 210

Part 1 Conq uest of the World 210

Part 2 Army Organisation (D r Brian D obson) 213
Part 3 Equipment 228
Part 4 T h e Army in the Field 239

Chapter 2 The Later Empire AD 200-450 249

Pa rt 1 T he M obile Army (D r Roger T omlin) 249

Part 2 Equipment 259

Appendix 1 War at Sea 262

Appendix 2 Fortifications and Siege W arfare 274
Appendix 3 Roman Military Costume 304
Bibliography 314
Index 316
GREECE AN D MACEDO:--IA

The City States 800-360 DC

...,,,•
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 T H E C ITY STAT ES 800-360 Be
T HE STATES AT WA R

Int roductio D involved in ue .... r betwee n Spana and established. This last Slep "" IS only
Soon aftfi 1200 Be the great Bronu_ Athens, T o t hese one mu st add Xeno- aochieYC'd on the eve of the Persian wa rs.
Age crvilisauon which had f1ourishC'd in phon, who " Tore alVUIld t he beginning Athens gained control of the whole of
Greece for several ceerunes ...-ent into of mc 4th century Be. Xenophon's writ - AUica dur ing this period, and, b)' 500
a rapid decline and tinally collapsed. ings arc not in the same class as Herod - Be. she was becoming the cuituraj cent re
Barbarou s uibn poured southwards OllIS or Thucydid es but he was a soldier of the Hellenic world and the mOSI
obliterating the last re mnants of th e and served for man)· }'e an with the pcwertul Slate in central Greece.
xt ycenaean culture, and a dark age de- Spanan•. He is t hus an incom parable Spana, on th e orher hand , had a very
scended on G reece. T his book is a sou rce of infor m at ion about t he Spart an differe nt development. T he Spartans
surve y of t he militar y system. th at military system. were descended from the Do t ian in -
emerged from this dark age. An au empt The~ e literary sources ar e supple_ vaders who had conq uered Laconia.
is made to t race t h~ developm~ nt of mented b y a mass of archaeological T hey had enslaved part of the native
militar y organisation, tact ics and ar ma- evidence. An er a battle it was custom - population and subjected th e rest. T he
ment in Greece and Italy from t he 8t h ary for the victor to dedicate some enslaved popu lation were called helots,
cent ur y Be, when ci"ili.ation once more armou r in a sanct uary such as Olympia. T hey were tied to th e land aod com·
began to eme rge in Gree« , unt il the In time t hese shrines became .0 clut- pelted to work t he state-ow ned farms
onsct of the second dark age when t he te re d wit h armou r that it became necea- which pro,'ided Ihe Spartans with their
Roman em pire in the West collapsed. sar}' to t hro...' out the older pieces. At livelihood. The subject peoples, ca.lled
Both Greece and Rome had to face O lym pia some were dumped in t he ~, were allo "'"ed a measure of in-
the supreme tnl. With G reece it WI$ 5treams and dis used " "ells. whib t other dependence but were compelled to pro-
.....hCII the Penian. in.-a.de<t at the begtn- pio;es ~re used to reinforce t he banks vide soldi ers to fight on the Spartan
ning of the 5th e>:ntury , ...·hile Rome of the stadium. In rece nt years some of s.ide. The Spanans were com manded in
faced a similar cruci al situation whe n this armour has been recovered during baule by 1;\O·c herediw)' kings. By the
the gratest of the ancienl generals, exca'·at KlIIS. end of t he 7th century Sparta had over-
Hannibal, invaded I taly 260 yea" later. come " l essenia to the west I nd gained
Both t hese wan are examined in con- control c f t he whok: of the southern
sidereble detail to show how the t wo The S tates a t War Pelcponnesu •. Over the next 100 years,
military syste ms rose to t he situaILon. When t he M ycenaean states fell soon either by coercion or persuasion, she
.\toll of Rome's or ganisation and equip- after t 200 IIC, hotdes of savage tribes- managed to unite t he states of the Pelo-
men t was borrowed from the nation. men, G reek speaking but from the ponnes us into a league known to t he
with whom she came into confl ict: the mountaimlU' north · ....e.tern region , ancients a. 't he Lacedaemonla ns and
Etruscans, Samnites, Celts, Canna - moved down into sout hern G reece. T he the ir all i e~ ', but called today simply the
ginians and, of course, the Gree ks , T he most formid abl e of t hese invaders were Peloponnesian League.
contr ibutic ns c f each of the . e sta tes will the Dori ans. M any of t he origina l in- In t he middl e of the 6th cent ury , th e
be examined in tu rn . habitants fled fro m G r eece and settle d tyra nt Pe isi~t rat us seized power at
Alread r by t he late M ycenaea n period along the west coast of Asia M inor Athen. , which he, and larer his son
in the 13th and t 2th cent uries Be cen- (Turkey ) in Ihe area t hat became kno",'n Hippias, governed im errrutrenrly for
tral European influences were bei ng fel t as Ionia. half a cent ury until deposed by the
in t he Aegean world. T his continued in T he invasions and subsequenl m igra- Spanan kin g Cleomenn ",-hen he in-
the succeeding centuries and. b>· the tions came 10 an end about 1000 BC. This vaded Attica in 511 Be. 10 t he ,,'ake of
time that Homer 's epic poems of t he ....as followed by a period of settlement. the tyran ts ci,ojl strife broke out as demo-
.\i.ycenaean era, the l/iad and the Odyr- Finally, order began to ret.um . The little crat and oligarch st ruggk:d for power.
uy, were commiued 10 " Titing, pra.;- states ,.'hich emerge<t consisted of SC'V- When t he oligarch Is>.goras "'as thrown
ticall>· nothi ng of the ancient weaponry eral ,·illages wit h their land under t he out, he appealed to his personal friend
survived. For t his reason , unless there is control of a heredita ry watlord . These Cleomenes for assista nce. Clcomenes,
adeat derivation from theearlier period, gradually consolidated until, by t he 8th wit h a small bod y of rel ainers , agai n in-
the Bronze Age ...i ll be ignored. O ur century. a political stru cture which ...as vaded Attica, and so great was t he aura
knowledge of the 8t h and l1 h centuries to characterise G reece began tc emerge. of Span a tha I he took the city wit hout a
is very sparse b ut, by t he 6th, we have T his was th e polis or city sta te where blo w and gar risoned t he Acro rcn•.
a conti nuous written history. the government of an area sett led on a When the Athenians discovere d t he
T he hislory of the 6t h and 5t h cen· single town . G radu ally pow erfu l cities paltry size of Cleomenes' party, t hey be-
rune s is dom inated first by t he rise of began to absor b the ir neighbours ; t he sieged the Acropolis and Clecmenes, in
Persia and later by the bl uer war be- foremost of these were Spart a and the face of starvation, .... a. forced to sur -
twee n Sparta and At hens. T he period is Athens, In Athens, t he king was su bse- render, Fear ing repri s.ls, t he Athenians
very well docume nted by IWO great quently oust ed and supplanted by t he felt ob liged to release the king and his
wnrers-c- Hero dot us, who ",·as alive at nobility. I n time t hey. tOO, weIC th rown retainers. Enr aged at his humiliat ion
the time of the Pen ian invasion of out and cont rol ta ken over by a dema- Cleome nn re lurned to Spana and mo-
Gt'eece, and T bucydides, the greatest of gogic dic tator, or tyrant. Final ly the bilised t he entir e Peloponnesian League
the ancie nt historians, who "'as actually tyrant was ove rt hrown and democracy against Athens. Accompanied b y t he

rr
G R EE C E A:-JD MACE DON IA

other king Dema ratus, he led his arm~ fo rces to Ionia which res ulted in t he t he meamime Athens was a ble to build
to"'ards the borders of A ttica. In the saet inll end bur ning of Sardis, capi tal of u p he r lleel u nt il it ",as eq uai lOr he com-
non h T hel:>l:s and C hakis, Alhens ' t he Persian san ap~·. bmed fleels of all tbe ot her Greek stales.
~'OlTlmcrcial ri"al, se ized the o p por- T he Persians rUl h l essl~' put down the \X"hen it became obvious t ha t the
tunity to stri ke at Ihcir enem y and alw "" '011 .•\li lerlli> was overt hrown and its Persi.an in" sion was imm ine nt. a C\)f1-
mobilised . hUI I:>I:fo"" the assault CQUld pnpu lark>ll ooId into d a,'ery, By -194 the g"'ss was as5Cm bled at the i.thmus of
be launched d isse nsion broke out in t he revcn " -as over and the Pers,ans pre- U>rlnlh 10 try 10 'el tl e fhe imCTnal d if-
Peloponnestan ranks , !o.1any of the allied pat'N for a pumnve o f"'dition against rere ncn of the G reet Slates SO t ha t they
Slates refuse<! to fig hl C leomenes' peT- GINa . oould present a united front.
sonal wa rs fot him . Dcmaratlli> took An embassy was se nt (0 G reece de- In l~ sprmg of 480 BC lhe Persian
their &ide and the army broke u p_ T he manding eart h and water, the traditional t ing Xe n:es, accompanied b)" D~ mar ­
Athenians could ha rdly have bl:lie,'ed symbols of suhm ission. All hough prac- alUt, the deposed king of Spar1a. crossed
tneir good fo n une and had the presence tically all t he Greek states refused , the He llespont. H it vase army advanced
of mind 10 ClI.pitalise o n th" situalio n. " .::gina. which ha d t rad ing links wnh on (irec<.--e " il h t he fleet fo llowing along
T hey marched notl h and in lhe same t he eaSl , su bm itted . Aegi na lies in the t he coast. The ann y fo rced its "'.j'
day defeated bot h t he Tbebans and t he Saronic gulf " nly te n kilometres olf the Ih",ug h T hrace and down into .\ Iace-
C halc,di ans, redu cing the lat ter to the An ic coaSi and cont rols access to At he n. ' do ni. , bui ldi ng u p the road a. u
st alUs nf a colony . Th~ bl:s continued harbouMi. W ith t he Isla n d under Persia n advan\"f:d, Herodotu s says t hat th~
the ,,'ar and " 'as latn jo ine d by' anot her contro l Al hens woul d be: strangled . Th racia ns we re >0 o ve rawed that even
of Athens' cumm ~rcia l ri" al s. t he island Aegina was a mem hcr of the Pclopon- in hi. o wn day they wo uld not dig or
of Acgma. [t was d uring this war that ne sian League and Athens appealed to 80W the area th roug h which the army
Athem emerged as a mili ta ry power . he r old enemy C le" me nes , The Spartan pa ssed ,
Her st ruggl" wit h Aegina forced her to king to"k up t he Atheni an cause hur
bui ld a na",- which , in a few short ye ars , nnce aKain he Ca rne int o co nfl ict with The P cr sian a rmy
was to become t he strungesr in Greece . his co llealo:ue Dema rat us. The enmit y T he ancient Greeks believed t hu!
which had smouldered between the I WO Xerxes' arm)' n umbered t hree m illion
T he ri se o f I' ",. ia ' ince the abortive at tempr to invad e plus camp followers_ Herodotus gives
Mean",hile, evems in Asia ",ere begin - All iea some t 7 years he f"re now bursl t he total as fIve and a quarter million ,
ning to have an elf~1 on Greece . AI the into flame , Cjeomenes laid charges of bUI he is clearly a linle scept ical about
end of the 7th century lie the g reat em - illegit imacy against his colleague and how such an ar my could be fed, AI the
pi re of Ass yria ha d fallen and , by t he Dema ratus " 'as depmcd. T he fonner end of the t92OS, General Si r Frederick
midd le of t he suc e«<! lIlg Cent tIr)·, a new king fled GR'eCe and toot ..,fuge wil h .\l aurice made a detailed stud )' of
giant had arisen " 'hieh was 10 absorb all the l' eMilans . Cleomenes, freed of his Xerxes' route fro m the Helksronl,
the previo us empires. This ,,-as Persi:>.. partner, forcibly ..,turned A\'gina 10 its examining in pa nicu lar the pro bk m of
I n ~-I6 the Lyd ian empire fell and t he former loy'allies and pa tched u p an alli- water su pply, and concluded that t he
G reat King Darius overran Asia M inor aOCe ,,-ith Athens agai m l the t hreatened P enian arm y could not ha '"e numbered
(furtey ). One by' One l he Gr=k cities lOva,ion . T he PeMiians om"iously in_ more lha n 2r O,ooo me n plus n ,ooo
along the eea" fell to t he Persi ans. Some. lended only a lim iled puniti"e o peration animal•. " ~ms probablethallhe rain -
in deSf"' nll ion , t ook 10 the sea . lne agalOst At hens and l':.-etria which had fan allhi t lime ,,-as conside ra bl)' hig her
P"""""ans, like l he kg\"ndal} Aene a> . aid ed t he loman eevon. l ha n today' ( <cc p . 157), t hn efore these
crossed the Aegean and t he Adriatic and I n 490 the P ersia'" launched a sea- figu res could be mcreased shghtly. Even
fi na lly' settled al rhe colony' of Alalia in borne anack . Er etria was sacked and the so, t he fiKU re could hardly have been
Corsica . How,,\'er Ihey were moved on llcct moved dow n 10 t he ba~' of .' lara- over 1 ~0,ooo. O f this number about
by the F.lru.ca ns in ~35 and ult imalely toon ..,ady for 1he sIri ke agains t Athens. three-qua rlen would ha'"e been com -
joined the colon y' of !o. iassilia (.\br~ The Al henians scm a ru nner 10 Sparta batants"
sc illes) on the southern coast of France and marched QU I 10 meet the inva ders. The !'ersi an ar my was a polyglot affair
In ~ tO, whe n all the islands along t he W hat ha ppened at Uarathon isconfused d rawn from all qu aners of a ,'ast em pire .
co.ast of A.ia .\ hoor were in Persian and t he tru th will pro ba b ly ne'"er be L ike the Romans, t he Pers ians de _
hands. Dariu s in\'aded E urope . Pushing known . The S partans delayed their manded Iroops from Iheir su biect races.
u p t he west coast of the Blac k Sea, he march be cause they were ecl ebn ting a The VBS! majo rit y of t he Persian army
cro>;,cd t he Danu be and imade d resli val and ar rived 100 late fo r t he batt leo were lig ht- armed skir mishers, eit her
Scythia, Next T hraee was o verru n and T o t he ir ast onishment they di scovered archers f" ,m ce ntral Asia or javeli neers
.\-tacedo niu forced to submit. Only lhal the At he nians bad decisive ly de- fro m the easter n M edi ter ran ea n, T he
'I'hessaly now , «x,d hel ween t he Greek feated Ihe Persia ns and dr iven t hem Out I' e" ian. and M edea who formed the
states and Persia. In 500 the Greek of Attica. nucleus " f t he arm y' w"re I""se ca ps,
slate, in Asia ,\ I m" r, led by Mil" IU' , The defeat at Maratho n serve d onl y mult k olou red. long-sleeved tunics (be -
revolte d and looked for help from t he 10 in itat e t he Persia ns. All knew fha t t he neat h which was a scale shir t) and
wes t . Athens and Eretr ia on the wes t matl el WIS unsettled, but it was te n years hreeches. T hey carried wicker shield. ,
CQ;lSt uf Huboe a se nt expe ditionary hefore a """ontJ arternpr " as matJe" [n proha !> l)" L"Overcd with hide, wh ich were
 T H E C IT Y ST ATES &>0-360 lie
TH E S T ATI\S AT W AR

som e w hat SIm ila r in a ppeara nce (0 the crosse d the Hellespont. Tllese force.
U." eOliafl . hid d., this was a ce ntral- ~-uul d ha"e Ileld tile na rrow passes 10 l he
hand grip tv pc on It, wh ich was stitched a south and w~.., t uf .\ Iuunt Olympu, in-
metal 00"•. Their weapons co nsrsred of de fin irely. Hut , for "o rne reaS<lIl-pcr-
a 'ho rt sp~3 r . bou t zm in le n gt h, a lu ng ha ps because the troop, d id ,I<"
like
composite lin'" with hronz e- lippe d ITcd fig hting so far trom home-t his fo r .... ard
arruws and . dai/;ger w h ich hu n g on the po.it io n was aoando n~"tl , I k rod" t u,
rig ht . ide, .o ~gest. t ha I the army wit hd rew be -
The elite of t he !' eThlan anny werC rhc cause t he Persian fifth ~~,] um n was
klll g '6 pe rsonal Ix>dygu a rd, the 10,000 alread y opcrarmg in the area and rhe
Im mort als, '" called he~au,e thei r "outhern G reeks felt they could nor
st rengt h w a, alw ays kept up to t hi, trust t heir no nhern allie•. H erodutus
numhe r. T h" 'I cq uipm<'nl differed frum also mentions the fear that Ihe Pers ian
orher I'er. ian, o nly in t he ri ~h ne" of it, fleet m ight outfl ank them and land
a~~"utre menlS. The l'er. ian cavalry wa, t roops fu nhe r dow n t he coast. In the
armed in t he same fa ' hio n as the infant ry unrest ricred area alo ng t h" ~oaSl the
ex~ ..pt that s"me wore met al helm" " . G reek fleet could not g uaranI"" to S1Up
l lemdm u, cla,ms thaI the Per, ian the Persians ct.)ing Ihis an d il was prol>-
cavalry n umbe red &>,000, bul 8,<XXl ahly the main rea..m for the w,thdraw·aL
rna)' be a mo re reason able es t imate . T Il~..,sa l y was a ba ndo ned. Thi. had
H erodo tus gIves t he size "f the Per- ",rinus rep<:reussiuns among th e alh" , .
sia n flee t as t.,207 triremes, includ ing .\ \ any of the non he rn I" wn, be lieved
300 I' hoe nician "es,d" 200 Egypt ian t ha t Sp una only inte nded 10 make her
and 290 loma n Greek It ,eems pro b- real stand at t he is!h mu s of ("-"rinth, and
a bl.. t hat the his toria n i. he re rec",<l ing in fa" 1 many uf t ile l' e1o pn nn" . ian,
the pap<: r ' !lengt h of the Pe rs ian .\ le.1i- open l~' advocated thIS line. As a res ult
terranean fleet and nm Ihe operational m any of t he northern ro wn s decided to
n umber , as it is dea r from the later en- suomit. In "uk r 10 halt t his defect ion it
gagement ' that the " ersian . d id nm Wa' tinally' d..cided to m "ke a 't and al
have a ma"ive n umerical superiorit y Thermop d "e, a place wr.o. " name has
The prillcipal ves",1 "f t he day was become a bywo rd for heroism.
t he' tr ireme. Thi. was a galley propdled
by about t 70 00" al three di fferent
le"ek At t he fro nt of t h~ ship, at water
level, wa' a hrnnze- pJated bea k whic h
Was used to ho le and . ink enem y ship,.
T hi, t n'" of ship, varyi ng o nly sup....-
ficially , wa, used by all t he M edit er-
raneun tleets of t he time, Aut hese gal-
leys carried a com plemmt of ma rines
WOO"" lob It was to t ry til hoard and
capture t he enemy shi ps . G reek ships
carried ten bo plite, and li,ur archers,
wheIT a' t he Io nian ships each carrie d
30 10 ,*0 ma rines. T he. e m arines we re
armed mainl y wit h spea rs, javelins and
poleaxes .

,,'
A ~"a<'l sP'O!'rmon{arche< Tn,. proboblv
The d efe n ce o f G r eece
F a<:ed with inva.ion, Athens and S parta
_ , . an -lmmo<'oI' , """ 011fle 10.(l(X} ha d buried rh.... d ilfncn"es, Athens had
e",. p"'",,,,1 bod~\Iu.,d. of 'Il<> Per••an k,.... eve n go ne .0 far a. to pla"c h.... ent ire
F,om s...... 511' "" nw", Be N""" In the Lo uvre
Pa,,,

Abova
1 2 3 Two a"owneadsar<l ••I,,,,,,""01 fl"'"
military strength, ship. a. well as me n,
und er S pan an command . It w'a. de-
cide d Ul st<>p tile Persia n ar m y at t he
T em pe Gorge, a nar row' defil e at the
._.
Ea'tem ""I""'t po...,!;Jly PI'OM"".n, !oor>d a,
MOl.t hon B""s~ Mu","um ,, "'''ow h••"lrr;>m suuth end of ,\ \ o unt O lympus , A furce
Ol~"'p .. Probobly I,,,,,, ,r.e boll.. 01 M.ralllon
The <!ed ,caMn fNds ·To Z"". the Atllen,,,no
,... '1." stand ' hillock.t Th" nT>opyl"" Nal",,,,,1 of ro.coo hopfire s was despa tc hed and
A!cn_ lOij,cal M u,,"um , Ar"""" S P."" .. rlIKliu,. thol.., 'iJO'l. tro<n t he Mede.'
sh..-d boss from Sarno. in p"'it ion he fo re Ihe Persians Ilad eve n Archaoolog ,c.t Mu,,",,m, Olympia

'3
GR EECE A:-.: n .'I.1AC f: DO :--J I A

At T hermopylae the mou ntains come Th is cliff is the ke~· to t he pass . A shon " 'ou ld auempr to force a passage at Ihis
in cl",e to the sea, leaving only tWO pos- distance be}·ond the cliff a spur jUls out point in thefaeeoCdetermined and well-
sible ro ute! south -one along t he CNS! towards the sea (t his is t he m iddle pass). organised opposition_
and the (Mher a vcry di fficult route over Along t his spur t he people of Phocis had .-\ shun d istance off the coast lies t he
the mountains . T oda y t here is a ma rshy const ructed a ..-all st re tc hing OU t into long island of Euboea, which st retehe,
plain berween t he hills and the sea, l he manM 10 stop the Malians in,.,.d_ for 1 7 ~ km in a south-eas te rly di rection,
brou ght about by the silting of the ri,·cr ing Iheir CO!.Inlry. An }-one ",~shing to leaving onl)· a narro.... channel bet....een
Sperchrius ; in t he ~th ~n1Ur)· tIC t here bn'lss this poi nl ....oeld neve to neg0- {he isla nd and the mainland . Here, un-
was only a nalTow passage between the nate the Zan ano cliff_About t hree kilo- like t he original position a{ T empe , i{
hills and the sea. Th ese hills, the Calli- metres fan her along the pass is a t hIrd "as posMblr for Ihe Grttk tlerI: 10 p~_
dromus ra nge, streich in an easl-wnl narm'" poi nt (Ihe east gate) wit h t he '·ent the Pen ian na'-y bypass ing the
direcnon down t he ecase and al t hrtt ancient ,-mage of ..\ lpe ni built on a spur G rttk army on the mainland . This,
points ther co me very dose: to the sea . jut ting out into the mars hes . Here t he lhen, ....al t he area .,,-here the Grttks
T he lint of t bese (t he west gate) is at the hills are low and easy to CIo. s. elected to halt t he Persian ad.-ancr _
very beginning of the pass. Herodotus As me nt ione d before, th ere ....as An edvance guard ....a s imme di alely
descr ibes t his as so narro"· lhat t here anot her stee p and d ifficult route into sent out to man the pass until tbe rest of
was only roo m for a single cartway. cent ral Greece at the CS t end of Ihe t he army could be bro ught up. Cleo-
Here the hills are not very high and range. T his rout e follo s the valle}" of menes had met a violent end .e'"en years
could easily be crossed. Beyond t he wnl the Asopu s, which passes t hrough a earlier and had bee n succeeded by his
gat e the pass wide ns. Here was situated precip itous gorge. T oday the railway you nger brot her Leonid as. It .... as Ihis
the and ent vilb ge of Anthela T wo and and road bot h follow th is route , th e new Spart an king who marched nort h
a half kilometres beyond the west gate for mer passing t hrough a tunnel on th e .... it h hi. h..,dyguard of 300, th e h'ppm ,
lay the village of The rmopylae, named we, t . ide of t he gorge, whilst th e lalter to hold t he pa••
after the hot springs which still rise climb. up th e hillside "n t he east of the
there today. T he calcium car bonate in ravine and then runs over t he hills above a_l ow
these ther mal spr ings gives t he land· t he gorg e. T his route was guar ded by A model 01 Il"Ie p. .. 31 Trn.,rnopyl... o. ,t
scapc t he appear ance of cru sty grey rock. t he ancient citadel of Trac hi. built on prob 30'" 3l>p"a'lld c 500 Be. Tho Po,...,.,.
_~ "",comped i~ I'" pla n on " '" 1011 T"'"
A great cl iff, know n as Zastano , to wers top or t he stee p cliff. overlooking the 01\0<:"", w. ~ o. :A) I nd Il"Ie ~; nock _ _ 1""
nearly r.ocorn above Thermopylae_ ..-est side of the gor ge. "So commander S Pl'''a~ . m_ lh, ,, I.. t $I.M : 6)

'4
 TH E CITY ST AT ES 800- 360 Be
THE STATES AT WAR

With the Spartans were 2,800 other issue by applyi ng the name of lochos to Atte misium at t he no rth end of Euboea.
Peloponnesians. The war memoria l seen t he five major d ivisions of t heir army Of t hese 127 were from Athens. This
by H erodotus at Thermopylae records (see p. 41) was not t he tota l m USter -ctarer, a further
4,000 Peloponnesians -900 more t han The soldiers who joined Leonidas at 80 shi ps were sent to Artemisium , of
he lim ; t his may include the hetou who T hermopylae wer e told that the;: were which 53 were Athe nian. T hey had been
accompanied every S partan army . on ly t he advance guard for the rest of held back i n case the Persian fleet trie d
As they advanced nort hward t hey t he army. When they reached the pass to sail round Euboea , Thi~ num ber was
were joined by 100 T hespians and 400 they established a supp ly base in the swelled by volunt eers fro m Greek cities
T hebans. T his army was finally swelled village of Alpen; at the east gate and in Italy and desert ions from Greek
by 1,000 Phocians and t he compl ete took u p their position at the m id dle gate i~ land~ held by t he Persians to br ing the
armyofthe Locria ns. Each grou p served T hey then set about repair ing the wall tota l u p t o 368 , of which almost half
under its own Slraugos, or gener al. which t he Phocians had built. T his wall were Athenian.
T he G t eek hoplite used a spear abour was exca vated ju st before Ihe Second The Gre ek fleet, like the army, wa~
2_5m long , giving him the advantage in World Wat; remains were discovered under t he overall comma nd of a Sp ar-
reach ov er his Per sian opponent. He on ly on the top of t he ridge. Th e wall t an, Eurybiad as, whilst each of the
was heavily armed with a round shiel d started with a tower and t hen zigzagged squadrons from t he variou~ cities was
so-coon in diameter , a cuirass, helmet do wn t he hill , It m ust have com inued under the com mand of its own adm iral.
and greaves (leg gu ards). He also carrie d across t he level ground and probably The At henian fleet was co mm and ed by
a sword which he would only use if his fini shed with another tower in the t he wily T'hemistocles, who had played
spear broke, He fought in phalanx, or ma rshe s, There is a narrow gateway suc h an important part ill building up
format ion, about eight ranks deep. This next to t he tower on t he r idge, and t he Athenian nav y.
phalanx was probably organised in unit s H erodot us claim s there wer e severa l The Gteek fleet, as it could t ravel
of 100 (lac/wi) whi ch were subdivided more. T he 1,000 Phocians wer e placed fast er , may have taken up its position at
into four sm aller un its, each of three on top of t he mountain to counter any
files of eight plus a rear-rank officer. The Persian attempt to tu m t he Spa rtan Below
position by forcing t heir wa;: up t he The p ••" oj Th e r m o ~ y l . e seen from {he 'Ia.t
officer comm and ing each file fought in 'le nd' hillo c'. The cl,fls of Za'ta no, towering
the front ran k. This system may have Asop us valley. ne,rly 1.000m o" er Tlw mopylae, rise on the
varie d slightly from state to Slate, and The combi ned G r eek fleet, consist ing left. The aoe;ool coastli ne wou ld ~ a y e be-e n
the S pan ans seem 10 have confused t he of 21t tri remes, took up position at just {o thO r;ghl ol lhe mod ern (oad

"
GREECE A:-: D MAC ED O~Lo\

' AO' MTl"' S ' O ~

' ,V1" "'Jill'""

.....1I...~ GUlF

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BO EOTIA
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.
 T ilE C I T Y S TATES 800- 360 80:;
T HE S TATES AT WA H

lmemisium shun h' before t he land in the .\1&lian gulf o n the loort eent h da y, COISt. T he sto r m lasted for three da)'S,
force reached Thermopylae . The site of after Ihe arm y had secured ancoorago but o n the fo urt h tlK: fleet ....... ..ble I"
the lemple of Anemi. , from " 'hich there fu r t he fleel. SCI OUI ap,in , round l he promonh>ry of
Artemnrum go!: in name, has 00'" been Xerxes al read~' knew lhal the pesses .\ 1:ag nes ia and bea<: h at Aphe l"". On t he
established with rea 'C<1llbk certainty. into Thessal)" we~ no! occupied and he second da r of Ihe S10nn the watchen
hs posil io n is IlUu1'ed by the ehapel of entered lhe plain ....-n hour o pposit ion. A, on the he igh.. of Euboca had informed
.~ Gcorgios o n the hiD. beI",een he ad ''aOCCd sout h his S<.'OUts informed the Greek flttl of t he shipwreck of rhe
A.mini and Kur bat " . T he Greek a,n- him IMl lhe Span ans ...-ere holding the Persian lleel . Encouraged by this ne.n
chon.ge can i1w:rdo~ be identifie d as pa ss al Thcrmop)"lac . Herodotus re- t he Greek shi ps returned 10 l hei r
me broad, o pe n beach II PC"'ki Bay, OON' l he " " ,If )' lhallhe Great K ing .ent original Slation al Anemisium,
",'hi<.:h is io.kall >· suited foc the pllrJlOSe. OUI a horseman to reco nnoi t re lhe Gred< Thi. ra-~Sl1gC' has been called into
I);'esl of Pe"ki lhe beadlo str etch oul in posillon. T hil SCOul adv'anoc:d to a question b)' hiSlorians, and wit h some
an almost un broke n line along t he non h posit ion from ",'hich he could sec l he just ificalion. It is possibl~ tha t the look_
coast of E uboca , and t he Greek shi!>S ....'all across Ihe m idd le gale but ....'15 un- "Uti o n Skial hos, if they were still there
"u,J1d have had am ple space to beach in a ble to see into the Greek camp. It .... as aflcr the capture of the t hree ships,
a single line . Lookoul posn we re ""lab-- the Spanan da)' for dUly. The La<.-edae- m,ght have seen a .....reck o r t ....'o. How_
lished o n Ille lIill•. O ne of these mu.t monians ha d piled l heir arm. outside: evcr , even o n the c1earesl of days il
certainly ha"e been placed abo" e Cape the wall and we re eithe r stripped olf would have been impossible to sec a
....rtemision , len kilometres cast of Pe"1<i eXelciSlOg o r combing their long hair. wrecked galley frum a di S1an~e of aboUI
Bay. Anoi ller wa, posted on Ihe island of When Xerxes heard this he called ten kilomet re. , let alone in a storm .
Skiathos , which he s four kilometre' off D em aut u< to a. k him wha t it meant. T he)' ~"u l d Iherefo re ha"e had no idea
[he headland ,)1' Mag ne.ia, A. t he I'e r_ T he exiled king exp lained t ha t it was of the extent of t ile dam age. T his pan of
si.n flcet sa iled south it wo uld have to the Spa rt an custo m to comll thei r ha ir rhe story rs pro ba bly an attempt ttl
pa" betwee n Skiarhos and the m ainl and be fore pun inll their lives at risk, T his ace..sunt for I he G r eek fleet be ing back at
in order til enter the Eu boean channel. .tor)' is probably a pocr yphal, bUl it Arte mi.ium whe n t he Persians reached
\X'hen the Pe..ian. were sighted, t he illust rates the a 'w in which Ihe Spar tan s Aphetae. 'I'he retreat 10 Chak is is prob-
lookout s on Skialho. would signal with were held by t herr fello w Greeks. ably a complete fiction. Herodotus has
~a~...n. and the observancn post above Xerxes reac hed Ihe plain of Lami a 14 also prullably naggerated Ihe effeCl of
Cape An emi.ion woutd relay the mes- days after Ieavmg Thcnna. He had the st"nn , Ihe P ersian fleet ",IS prob-
sage to t he flcet at Pe,'ki. Three .hi!>S cove red the 2llo km al lhe rate of 2Okm. abl>' ne " er as hig as he claimed. He kne.....
were also 1X"led al Skialhos to keep day . The a rmy camped in fr om of l ru. t l he fleet at A phetse did not grea tl y
"" atch in case conditions were uesuir- Tl1Ichis and ,, '.i ted for the fleet to join outnumber the Greeks, so he has u ied
able for sigmlli ng, them. 10 reduce il to a more real istic size by
Two Iighl galley., o ne stalioned at Tbe Persian na" l had sem out len wreding a large pan of it in the storm.
P~'ki and the O1hct at 1'hcrmopylae, fast galln 'S to ~noilre the COUI. He cal mly ....TCI."k. anulher zoo galle>'s
were used to maintai n commumcanoas These ed vanced as far as Skiathos u n- only a rouple of da~', later .
between t he land and 1ft forces. Ha,;ng noIiced and puun«d on t he llu-ee Greek
cstablished the'r position. t he t.ired<. galk)'S posted the-re 10 keep .... alch , The ba ilie for Thermo p ylae
""tl ed down 10 a"'ait t he ani","! of the \t'hen lhe lookouts o n t he island sig- It was well int" August when Xerxc-s
Persians. nalled to rhe IIttt at Pevki, Herodotus reacbed the plain of Lamia, He hope d
claims rhat t he G reeks panicked and lhat when his ann)' .....as assemhled . its
XerJl e. adva n ces into Greece ..... ithd re w down the cha nnel 10 Cha.lcis, sheer size would cause the Greeks in the
Xerxes, ~an ",,'hile. was at Therm.. lea\'lOg the Spanan /lank uncovered. pass to Iosc hean and dcs,," their polIS .
(modern Saloniki) with both t he fled Before re jC<;\ ing this o ur of hand, it mUst The Great K ing waited for fou r da ys,
and the army . When he advanoc:d imo be remembered IMI lir e signalling at probabl y anucipanng the arrival of the
The.saly the twOarm. of hi. force would this time coul d only conve y a single lIeel . W he n Ihe)' did not show up, and
be ..,paI\lted ..nd would o nly be able 10 message (see p . 275) and the Grttks m a)" rhe G r«l:s remained obSlinatel)' loo!!ed
rejoi n at the E u boean channel. At have thought the d readed Persians were in t he pass, he ral her flamboyantly
Therm a t he tinal plan. for the mv asion upon them , T he main Pe rsian fleet orde red for....ard his Medes and Cjssians
of the pemnsula would ha"e been sailed Ircm T herma on the r.... elfl h day (who wele , im ilarly ar med . but the
wor ked out. A. t he army moved mm e afte r the arm y had left. It rca ched rhe lat ter wo re turbans) , wil h o rde .. to
slo", ly, it <ct OUI I I days before t he fleet. area of Keram idhi ju", nort h of Ca p" 'brinll: t hem hack alive',
T he tWOfo rces probably agre ed to meet l'on and st" p ped for t he nig ht. l lere the The M cdes launched a ,eric, of
be ac hes are ver y sp arse an d only the cha rges whic h failed to make any im_
~"
Map 01 ""ntral G'ftCO ' how, ng ,hot ' hoo" e 01
first arrivals could be pu lled cle ar of the pr~sion on Ihe G reek s. W hen Xerxes
.....ate r, Ihe res t ha\' ing to r ide al ancho r law lhal t ile Greeks were holding firm.
'''''wn '"
""Of. The "",n fo ul n a re Cfqm
eijl:hl de ep. It was a clear. calm night he .ounded the recall and scm forward
Ancien' pia"" names a"" displ aYed on lla'oo
COIl"'" T"'s d ,<!,tlCloon .. ma de 'hr~ho<J' but at dawn a storm got up and many of hi, pe rsonal bod yguard, t he Imm ort als,
,~- the ships were d u lled on the rock)' led hy their com ma nder H ydarne• . Ten

"
GREECE ....!';I) .\iACEDO~IA

thou sa nd " ra"k troops " f the g reate$t space In ac""m m",date the ",h"l~ !leer. great elfcct.
ar m y that the ,,'mid had ever seen xone " f the be aches at ['Iat ania i, deep The p""ian' feared that , if Ihey at-
mUl'hed out w do the ir kin !!'. hiddinl!' cn" ullh for mnre than nne line uf ,hi p. , tal'ked , the (;reeks would withdraw inl<1
' ) '0 tho'" wlm wat"hed from the Pcrs ian If the Ik el we re onlj' 450 strong. al1"w_ the narrOW S "f t he Eub<>can ch annel
l-amp a, they moved fo r"o ard, il m us t ing a m1llimum of j m pe r . hi p the line "' \file l ok m to the ea" lI ere, "'here the
Ita\"e seemed imp"", iblc that they could wo uld st retch fo r mull: tha n rhree kilo- narrow!' arc o nlv t hree kilom erres " 'ide,
fail. met res. t he}' could either stand and tig hl o r '<lip
...., tM I mmonals ad\"aill-cd. the Spar- Platania Bay it self could onl~' hol d a...--a.}-. T he Greeks had chosen t hei r
ta rrs p",,,,,d th rough 1M "-all 10 m«1 aoout Ko galleys. and lite boay totbe ...-es t pl><illon well. fo r this escape rout" ......
t hem , For all Ihe aura that sUJ'To u nJcd about 6 ~ , Thrs mean_ t haI the res t of l he alway.ope nto l he m , T he Persian. m uld
t he Immort al••.tbeycould achieve not It- !l""t mu. t have been beached . probably har<l ly sail dow n the channel before the)'
in.o: agamSlthe heavily armed Spa rl aos, squmlron hy "-lu" dn1l1, along the t iny haJ destroy ed t he Greek fo rce. a. the
III t he wntincd ' pace of t he !Xl"' t heir tx'achcs tn the w" , t "I' P latania st retch- ( ,reeb could then anac'l< the rea r half of
numbe r. were of no ad\'amage and. ing down as far as Oliw n Hay six kilo- the fleet when t h,' front half was alread~'
hoeeause thei r spears were .llOrler t itan merre. west of Plalania , These bc ac hes in the channel. T he Pe.. tans t herefore
tho<.c of tltc Greeks. Ihey " 'CTe unablc to arc very narrow and il would nnlj' have decided to rry to rum Ihe G reek positton
enllage t hem at dose quarters. Herod - been pl"sible ro pull rhe stem of l he by' "C nd mg a force around Eu boca to
olU~ he re records t he f....oun le Spanan .hlp ck ;lr of lite water , The be aches occupy l he"hanncl, On Ihe afternoon of
Irick of preten<ling to run aWa}'and IMn . lope <luit e ste.:ply at lhe ...- ater ·, ed~. their arrival they dl-spatehc.:l 200 ~hi J"$
lUm mg and catching t he pUT'lumg which wo uld mean that the prows of l he to cru,'lC o lf the island of Skiat hos .
cnemy unawa r"", but it seem, most un- gall eys 'Hlu ld ha"e bee n eomplCl ely appa r~ndy guardinl! lhe , ha rmel for t he
ltkclv that this manoeuvre could have allu," t, Thi, wa, prohahly "o rmal prac- stragglers whl>were st ill co m ing in. (T he
lx-en carried out in t he'c ,"nd ition' and t ice whcn hattie wa< im mi nent, allo wing figure or 200 shou ld he treated with
in ,uc h a cram pe d space. Also, as the the ship, ro he launched easily and eaut inn.) The,e Ihen sailed round he-
{,reeks ,, 'crc lighting a dd en.i,·c acuon. quicl<h' , T he supplv ships were prob- hind t he i.land an d . keeping sufficient ly
it was ",..,mial t hai rite}' kepi: l he it abl~' moored JUS t o lfshore. far o ut to se a to rem ain out of sighl of
format ion ; any breaktng of rank. ....ould T he Greeb o n t he wuth side of t he the watch",,'t above Cape Ancmi. ion.
ha "e presemcd the Pen;an. with thei r cha nnel ha d one g rea t ad" antage over 'lei off down Ihe cast e03M of Euboea.
dun"e. t hei r ad,·~rs.aries o n the nort h. 1'01 most T he Greek Ioo!<ou r posl on Sk,arhos had
On Ih... follOWing day Ih... I' e...ian. of the day the ha ze makes ir imp""sible
at ta" ked , Each Gr""k l'<.lm ingem fought
t hem in tum Alt hough a few Grech
to see acros s the c ha nnel f",m t he north. "'0.""ow
1.101> ng ' '''' ' oill"v" posw"n, ollhe
" 'herea, one gets a perfect view frnm the
had been killc<l , at the en..! oft he day the VO""'" for"",, du"nQ 'he ba!lle tor thermODvl..
s",uh side . So the ( ir ecks cou ld observe A Leo,, ;das 6 Xerxe" C Gree , fleet 0 Pe",an
I'e"ian, were no nearer their object ive, the Pe" ian m,)\'ement , w[{hnut being t"' l The Spa' ta n "."" aJ n"""""'P\IIH has
se en t hem!'c1,·cs. and t he y USl"d t his to beCome • b......"., fo< _(>Ism
The [>er. i a n fleet arrivlC'll
The Pe...ian flttt arrived at Aphctac 16
Ja~'s afrer t he army had left Therma,
T he . ite ,,' her~ rhe !leel beached is un-
certain: Herod otus saysl hal it wa,ab<xl[
80 Slad~$ ( I ~ km;' from Artemi,ium and
had a good supply of water , About ~o
stllde' must he interpreted as between 70
and 90 ' tad," ( t 3-17km ). T hi, lim its the
.ite 10 Oliw n or Plalama flay . W'. K .
Prrrchen, who ha s .pent man y years
I..mping over Greek haulefiel d" con-
", nei ngl}' argun in fa"(lIl r of the PIa-
tania ' ite hoecarn;e of its large r water
supply , !'latania Ba~' eun,i.rs of a ""rin
of 'ma ll heach~-s se parated b~' rocky
I'romontnrie'. The large, t of the'c
beaches i' nnlv ahoU! 450 m lo ng. T hi,
beach, whic h is just we.t of Plalani.., has
a , pri ng. I' lat a"ia it self has a small
Uream , Siroc~ it ,,'a, cs.~m ial fo r the
P ersiaes to beach tMir galle)'. if lhe y
...-ere OOtlO lose any more 10t he weather,
they wou1<l ha ,-e needed a considera ble

ra
 THE CITY STATES 800-360 Be
THE STATES A T WAR

ob\'iously been a bandoned as the G reeks the exten t of the Pcr,ian anchorage to Greeks had probahly been rowing in a
only learned whar hud ha ppe ned fro m a rhe e",1. If Ihere had Ix'en any , hip, e"t diamond form ation. The enem y ships,
deserter Th is post had ['robably bcen of Pla tan ia they were bou nd to h e seen, purting o ut from rhcit '·"rious anc hor-
withdraw n after the t hree warch ships at wherea< t he anchora ge at I'lat ania wa< ages, tried lom<' Iheir superior num ber s
rhe i, land had bee n captured. shielded by a promontory at t he eas t and greater manoeuvrability lO sur-
T be de serte r who informed the en d, round t hem. A< Ihe enemy ,hips ap-
Greeks was a man calle d Seyll ias. rhe Unfo nun" td y, Hcrodotu,' para llel proac hed, t he G reek ships, acting on a
greatest diver of his day. II e had escaped diar ies for t he fleel an d army hreak down signal from Eurvbiadas' f1ag,h ip , turne d
by swimmingl he Euboca nch anncl. T he al lhi, point and he appears to lo <e two t heir prows outwards, at the ,ame t ime
Greeks imme diardy ,em a fast sh ip days. -t he tleet arrived at Aphctac on drawing t beir sterns together to form a
dow" t hro ug h t he Euripus to in[ot m the the six teenth day after the army set out cird e. T he n, on a seco nd signal, t hey
53 Athenian ship s which had been hdd fwm T her ma . The Cvents ofth is and the cha rged the light er Persian ships head
back in anticipation of the Persi an move. succeedi ng t hree day, 'eem 10 have heen on. The Persians, who ha d expect ed an
F ifteen Per>lan ships had be en de- condenscd into two days. A. H.. Bum in easy viclOry, had walked st raight into
layed at their anchorage farther up the his book Pa,<i" ""d Ihe (heeks h,,, made' t he trap. Having mo vcd right indo,e on
,0051 and did nol set out {() j", n rhe mai n a detailed ex"mination " f th~se event, t he Greek ships, th~y were now una ble
fleet at i\pherae unt il lon g afrer t he other and suggeste d a recom truetion which to manoeuvre and use t bei r supe rior
ships had left. T hese late comers did not has generally heen follo wed he re seamanshi p; they were forced to lig ht
reach thc channel betw een Skiathos and The next day (the seventeenth) the o n t he G reek lerms. \X'hen, shonly
the mainland unril late 111 the afte rnoon , Pen; ians, who wCle waiting for t hclI afterwa rds, darkness began 10 descend
Whetl lhe ir view we,t wa, blind ed by t he detal hmenl lO round Eu hoea , made no t he ban le was btoken off, T he G reeks
glare of t he sett ing sun . T hey failed to attempt to attack t he Greek fleet. I .ale in mwed back 10 Anem isium elat ed wit h
,ee tht ir com pani on s in the shadows at the afternoon t he (;reeks lau nched t heir t heir su ects, - they had capture d 30
Platania Bay bU I did ,ee the G reek ships and rowed ou t into t he channel,
\'e"eb shining in lhe evemn g sun 10 t he planning o n a limite d engagement to Below
south- west. .'vli <taking t he m for t he te,t the enemy's meltIe and ge t ,orne The ,lte ot the Per> on a"c ~U!ag" "' PI.."""
Bay at Ihe Southern lip of t he Magne,i an
Persian navy , the y held their ,'ourse and experience of Iheir tac tics p ,o m o ~ t "'y . About 30 qal reys we re Moc hed
sailed stt aig ht in to t he arms of t he 'X'hen t he Pc"ians Sa'" t he Greek here. The ,emai~de r w ere , tru ~Q o u1 a 'o~g
Greeb, T hi, i, ll1leres t ing as it lim its fleet approa ching, they put to sea. The smalle r bys to the west as far as O llzu ~ 8,y

'9
GR EECE AND M AC EDON IA

enem y vessels and damaged or sunk Alhenian sh ips arrived bringing tbe his advi'e rs had pro ba bly bee n aware
several mo r e, Herodo{u~ does not state new~ of t he shipw reck . si nce soon after their arrival t hat the re
the Greek losses hu t se veral of their L ate that afternoon t he reinforced was a route ove r the mountai n whIch
,hips must have be en sunk . Grttk lIeet o nce more rowed OUI into could be used to o utflank the Spartans
T hat night a violent s<m'we'ler sprang the channeL Thi, time , probably be- in Ihe pass. T he Call id rom us mountain
up accom pa nied by to rrent ial rain . T he cause of t he haze, t hey managed to cross is laced wit h paths va ryin g from st eep
wind blew t he wrecka>:e from t he battle the channel unobserved and swooped and narrow goat tracks to fairly wide
into the Pers ian ancho rages and it he- upon t he C ilician galley's which were paths. T he tro u ble wa , that the moun-
carne entangled in the ,hip" whic h were st ill at thei r moori ngs, destro yed some tain was de m el y fores ted and it wou ld
only half beache d , of the ,hip" and then with drew into t he he impossible to find o ne's way across
Alt ho ugh t he fleet at Aphetae suffere d dusk It i, poss ible that t he Cilician without a guide. T oday, whe n a g reat
con'iderahly , t he ir troub les wer e as squadro n was moore d in Olizon Rayand d cal of deforestation has taken place, it
nothin>: compared with the plight of that the Greek Beet was able to sail un- is st ill easy to lose one's way u p thcre,
th eir companio n, tr ying to round t he ohserved past Cape Griba , roun d the even in daylight .
southern end of Euhoea . They ....·ere we' tern head lan d and into t he hav to At last the Persians found a local
caught by Ihe fu ll fo rce of the storm and attack the Cilician squad ron before it pe~sant nam ed Ephialtes who informed
das hed on 10 the rock y Coa~t at the SOUl h co uld be manned , T his is feasible as them that t here was indeed a ro ut e
end of the island. they would have been approaching out know n as t he Anopa ea path, and that fo r
Herodotus , tates that t he follow ing of the setting ,un. a price he wou ld lead them across.
morning the 53 At henian sh ips which ThaI night, as soon a, it was dark ,
had be en left to watch the southern end The en d of T hc rm op r la c H yda rnes led the Im mort als o ut of
ofEu hoea saile d into Anemisium hring_ M ea nwhi le, at Thcrmopyla c the second camp and, wit h Ephialtes showing t he
ing the news of the total destruction of day's figh ting had com e to an end. D ay way, hegan t he ascent oftbe mountain.
t he PelSian detachment . T h is is im- afler day Leon idas had sellt messengers
possible and clearly a day has Ix..,n loS!. ,oulh ple ading fo r reinforceme nt s but it Be low
I n all likel ihood no t hing happened on T h~ v,ew a clOSS the Euooe an ch a on", hom lhe
was no w clear t ha t none were coming.
Athe n '8n DoM ion at Pevk; B8y. The Pe";80
t his day' as both sides re paired their The Spa rtans were o n their o wn and ancho'age to the fight of cent,e DO the
sto rm damage. It w(mld be t he follow- their code of honour express ly forbadj; oppoS ite 'ide of the , ,,ait i' as deafly v i s i bl~
ing morning, t he ni net eenth, that the t hem to de, ert t heir posts. Xerxes and as itw" to Ihe Gree k,
 TH E CIT Y STATES 800-360 lie
T HE STATES AT WAR

All night long t he Pers ians toi led up the rec ent yea r, P ritchett has made a ve ry spring to the village of Elcut he rochori,
winding pat h until, at last, as t he sky de ta iled ' lUd y of t he , it e and has sug- where the re are t he rema in' of an ancient
began to grey m the east , the grou nd gest ed a route wh ich se ems to satisfy fo rt covering t he begin ning of t he route.
levelled off and t hey entered a smal! most of the criteria. He rodotus claim' Thi~ proves th at t he path was in use in
plain . T hey were plodd ing along be- thal H yda rnes look with him t he men he anc ient ll mes.
neath oak trees. Last year's leave, lay comm anded, i ,e. Ihe 10 ,000 I mmo r tals. Herodotus de scribe' Ihe Pen ' an, as
thick "n the ground and ru stled he ne ath There seems no reason to dou ht t his. If m arching all night with the m"untain ,
the ir feet. Ahead of thcm there was a the route were a narrow goat t rack wh ere of the Ocracans on Ihe r ight and those of
movemem and vokes hroke the sile nce , the men co uld o nly m arc h in single fi le, t he Traehinian, on thcir left. O n me
then they saw Greek hopl ite s ha,t ily t hen the co lumn would ha ve str etched face of it t his i, im possible 10 reco nn le
donning t hcir armour . lI ydarnes asked ou t for ten kilo metres or m ore. T his i, with any oft he suggested ro Uies over t he
who these men were, ad ding in con- unacceptable , and Pritchett conclud es mou ntains, pa rticularly if t he Pe"ians
sternation, ' Are they S partans? ' T hese thai one m ust be looking fo r a broad crossed the Asopus before they started
were in fact t he t ,000 P bocia'" whom path wh ere the so ld ier' could march the a,cent , fm Trae his and ,'-Iount Oeta
l.c'Onida , had detailed t o cover t he three o r fo ur ah reaSL are hoth wes t of t he Asopu, gorge.
m"untain path , H av mg est ablished their There is one po int in Herodotus ' top- However, since T her mopy lae itself was
identity, Hydame, arrayed his men for ography which is easy to identify : ' It in t he terr ito ry of Tr actus and J\ Iount
batt le and showered the Ph""ians with begi", at the river Asopus wh ich flows Octa mus l surcly be included amongst
arrows. th rough the tavine.' T he site of t he t he mo untains of the Oetaeans, one mu st
T he Phocians, f"rgett ing their m is_ Asopus gorge can hard ly he in q ues tion . conclu de t hat the mountains of Trac his
sion, be came convinced th at they were l ie continu es t hat the Persians crossed include d t he northern pa rt ofthe Call i-
the Immo na ls' prime larget, wilhdrew the Asopm before start ing the asce nt. d romus range . T his is admitted ly
to Ihe top of the hill and t here prepared Thi, m ndu sively pla~es t hem On t he d um ,y hut there ""em , to be no ot her
!() ' ell their lives dearly. W il h t he mute eas t side of the go rge. T here is a very explanat ion, especially as Herodo tus
d ear the Persians ig nored Ihe l' hocians easy rout e u p the hill,ide a\xmt o ne say s t he P ers ians march ed 'all nig ht ' he-
on the hill and pushe d on over the kilo metre east of t he Asopu s gorge , T his twee n these mount ain s. [f this is t he
moumam. is both the short est and the easiest route r ightcxplana lion , l hen the march woul d
The ro Ul e taken by t he ImmonaJs ha' u p t he mountain sid e fro m t he Lamian be in a southerl y d irecti on along the
provoked a great deal of debate . In plai n , l t lead, by wa y " f t he Chalkomata west , ide of !\1ount Callidromu"
Herodotus also de' cr ihe' t he ro ute as
pa" ing along the ha ck\xme of t he m{)un~
lain . Thi, is an accurat e de script io n of
t he ro ute from E lcuthcrochori across
the Ncvrcpohs pla in to t he pass between
t he Liathitsa and C allid rom us pcab.
Thi , ro ute follows the plateau iu' t hel" w
the ridge of the moun tain on the south
side .The Ph"cians,a ccord ingto H erod-
m us, were statio ned in a posit ion from
which t hey could defend t he route over
the m (mnta ins and the route 10 thei r
own count r y. Thi, can he no ot hn place
than the Ken opolis plain , w hich lies
about Iwo kilometres from t he su mm it
of the pass , Here the re is a sm all lake
which today drie' out in the summer h ul
may not have in ancient t ime' There i,
also a spring wh ich would give an ample
su ppl y of dr inking wate r for the 1 ,000
hopliles. The pat h from P hoeis joinslhe
Anopaea route at t his point; if t he
P hocians had taken up their positio'"
any neare r t he pa" , they would have

Le ft
The plain of Nevropolis juS! \0 \~e ' ouln of ,he
l i.t hitsa· C" II ,dromus pat• . Its P'Us i' ion .tthe
iunction of the "'ute to the pass oM the route
10 Ph"" i, ma 'e 11 1he most l,ke1v " Ie for
th e Phocian po. it>on
{~ RE ECE AND M AC EI) O NI A
 Till , CI TY STXI ES S OO - , ~Q ~<:
'rm: SL\TES AT w ..\ W;

been ~U' "rt I,,,,,, II,.. ruul" ro P h,>.; ". ,,,,,ld never d ~""'f1 h" I"". 'I'll. , 00 lh,'~ " '\1 ~hl "'nh ""'kl",, trc'''z~'_ Th ..
I'un henn",." ~n~' r"ul,' o,cr lh., L ia- Th,',!" ,,"' an d .100 Thd 'a," ,,,main,',j I',·, ,, ~ n,_ ,,- c .lrC h'IJ . h~J 1" 1>,' ,lrn 'en
,hlt>;l-C"lhd , n", u, r a" w"uld h~"e I" "nh him 1I"'1\.,J.>lU' 'u!:~~."" I h ~1 "n WlIh """r)!,'" an.i d a,,-,hc,,-J "Wr
g" Ihl> "~, . Ik'i h Jlu ,n ~ndl'rildl"lr arc 1.. .., "l ida' 1'",.",.1 II", The Nn, 1<' .la' the r de' ,,.' Ih"ir J~ad h' !l.el ~ : Ih"
agreed lh~1 Ih,' 1'1.. ",i"n< h"'"
up Ih,.." '''Ih him ..".I ,,,hI< I h~[ Ill"" J~":n,,,1 ( ;"...·k,. :-.'~'n m,"1 "flh. (ir",-\.: ' I'_a"
'00 ur .I".. ' ",,,"n " 'n "n .\ \' J\lm I j~ t hi l >~ r,
h.,.·(•• Ihen",,) NolTk. were hr"h.., ~ n,l l "e h.'phl'" J",,\\ rh,';r
'" the ",,"h "I rill' r"lh. ~nJ Ihi, """IJ .-\, I be·' " Ie lhc lT 1" , 1 m~...1 " "I':,·,h" r . ,,,,,,J, 3n ,1 n." " '-.I in d,,,~r. h..... king~'
"en,"nl" lil 11.-"..I" IU' · d.......·rif'l ",,,. l .c. 'mJ~~ " '''r1",,,,J 1"I,aw ~""I. ' I la,'~ rhe ,,-~ "f f;o,.-.." lx·f,."" ,hem H.·,,· I.,"'"
T h" I'.,'-" Ian, ", lJ hm'" r...""h" d Ill. ~ ~,,. ...I ,",,,·a"f,,>(. 40.1-: ,n' ,hall d tn" in 01,13' tdl ~n,j Ihe battle r~~J ,..-,., h\>
lop of ,lie r>a" ..1:'< 1 I hr,·...·<jlLln " r' " I H ~d,..,, · . lt "'"ulJ ul;~ ,ll" ! mm", u l, ""I""~' ( ,r" ek and P""ian 'lru~t.-,I
an hour Lu,·, -al\o.,u' h~lf 1''''' ,j\ in ,h., -cvc ral h...,r, ' " g..'{ ."-,wn f""n III" ror I" " " "" " '" " , 'he t-.lo.iy . " " ur l im,...
"""nlng " ... i~h" ~ n J l h ~ :-r ~nan ' ir.l"nJ.d ." the l'er ' lan, "'''I'lu,,-'.1 il anJ 1~'uI II,",'"
L," 'niJ.h ' CW1".,J ,h., """, lha' ,h., m~h Ih..· l'~ r.i~n> pAy J ... " r!,' h.:l< >r~ Ihc ( 'h·,.. k, Jr ~l!ged 11 h ""k "I(" i". :-." (he
Imm on al, '....re ,·r..., ,";( the m"" m alll> Ihe' Ji~,t .1 '''~". I":r" ' l,,d unllll.",J,;,'m, ",,, u!!t ht
li...a [r"m ,k-erl"l', wh.. , am, ,,, ,l uli ng 1 1~ \"Jnl: ~rn,'" Ih" '''I' " f lh. rl",un · Ih" ne'" that (he I mm,'n" l, h~J ""adl'.1
'ht nig hl. anJ Ih,'n I" ,,,, I,,,,,,,'m , l' "k'-.l lam [he I',·,_i.,n, ~1~ rl C,t l h" d ~ '~-':I1l. 'he l\o.'I,,'m ,,1' ,he f'alh . Till: ('re,·k.
On rh" hci~ h l ' "h" ,a n J "wn ' 0 lllf"UT' 1....." .1,,1,," .~" lh"l Ih,' .. \n"ra~a I'~r h "I,.....·" r~n'" a",1 ""l"".lred h'...a, J . Ih,
hr m )U" a ll,1' da wn T h, (,,,,,,k
,'''Ill - , 'a111" d. .w n 111'" 1h" P"'~ ~ I .\ 1pcni T h,' \\ all. ' I'he~' f'a,,,·" Ih",u ;,, " Ihe 1("'''' anJ
malllkr, imlll,dr ~I "h' hdd J ,oun, ,1 ,ill; "I rh i, 1\ \\\'11 h." h~~n "'l "hli> h~d \\ II hd l' C\\ I" " 'mall hill"." k n""l( at-.'lI l
.\1>" , W~ f\' f,, ' ,, " hdr~wing ,,'hik Ih,'~ Wilh ,,>It'" .I ,g , " ~ "I' ~~ ,m in1\' Oil,' , id ~~ r cm ali-,.-.- th, mar- Ill' ~"'UIl J ",h," ,'
' till haJ a ,'han ,'" . 1..,,, niJ a, . ,,'I1,'n h" )ll ltin~ <1\11 il\h' lh~ m." ,h", alI,'''t three t hcv ("'''1<",1 a ,i" k and I'l'el'"c.'J ". ,I...,
, a,\, thar t heir h,'an, '\'\1'" tI,'1 in iI, ,em b l"lll.-t r,·, c·,,' 1 " I' l h ,' Phocian ",,111 at J'h. 1', r, i:tn, " ,· '!tlned rim \lIl( h the; \\',Lll
lhem on t heir way , ..h " SI''''I<l''' h, Ihe' ' i t c' of I he' c·,,, l ~a l e Th l'l" i, ,m <:~" 'md Ir icd m d"rnl>" 1 u p 111" hill, id" b\lI
d: ,,''' 'll l n ,-\l l'_'ni !,,,i n ~ <, \"'ll hc ho"k ,, [ III ,'; " ','r,' ,ll' i""n ba ck , .- \ 1 tir" til c
"h / ,a ' )J l1 Ll ,It,d ,"1 J o ... n thro ug h Il ral:,,· ( ;n:,,'" d..r,·",kd the; m, d ",', \\',,11 their
TI>o,." 0 " . , n" ~ :1.:> .,"C L'""
,om"an" ,,,,,, .c"""C n", ,.., , pili" II j, "I" ," t rakm I"nl\ allu ~", 'h· ""'rJ,. but "' h"n t h,'" br" k,' th,',
0(*" J"".nc '. '",.. , 1~'~ "1 re~'~ "Ill y h~,k II", I '~ ,~ia n , lh re~ In I,,,,, ,ll l~,·k. " thctr """i bn " wi 'h Ih" Ir li,t,
.. ,,..,,1 ,. . '" ol" ""••.." ", "~ g ~ h"ur' h' n'1,"lI~k ~n d 1.elh T h"" i< ',,!,lu on unril lh~\
,~ o ve< '" , .1 \", ,- \
"ax,', lId ,t h~" k hi, aHack lInl ,l mid_ ",..... """rwh d ",,'d by lh" ha il ,,1 mI>·

._.
Below
T". .. :e

~
".
m,,, rOl n~, \\' h,'n hi, 1n " '1" " mn"J 'h.
I'a" the :-'1'~ rl.lI" n" longer In ,,J I"
d"k",llh,' ,, ~11 1> ,, 1 ~,h·.m".J ak, ng th"
I...." h' ib ",.1,"'1 p"inl ~nd h...., ,i r""
. ik>, 11\ ",,,Id,,,· all " 01' ,nil.
Ikr,,,t" lu, n...-""l- a ",ll" "f '"''
'I'.m an, " 'h" at I h~ lim" ,,1 rh,' 1a'1
>l a",. ","" h'lll~ III u' ilh "l'lnhalmi".1l
~" ~ u I' in n",,,, ~ll'hab.n x " ilh lh,' ligh l" " :\II',: ni. Th,' fir-I. nam,' J EU"1"', "Il
.·,a ~m,,'d lid,." ,,,, "rin~ Ih,: " "'~ ,. 11",,- k ar:llllg Ih~1 Itt..· I-'"r,ian' haJ ,T,,,,,,,·.l
.~

'J
G REECE AND ,\.iACEDON IA

t he mountaill~, called for his armour Icy whk h ha d been act ing as a liaison road, h ut now t hat all oppos ition had
and , though he could not !>Ce, ordered shi p bet wee n the Iorce in the pass and been crushed, pa rt of t he army pushed
his IIdoilO Ind him into t he thic\: of the the fleet carne in bringin g t he tragic th ro ug h the mou m ains and in\'aded
batde. The 5<'<:ond, Aristooemus, lost ne w'S from Thermop)'Iac. I'hocis, The,' SlIcked ""er)" ,'illagt', loot·
his courage alld $Iipped a",,,y w;l h the \\"hc n the sailors heard of the death of inl! and hurning Ihe temples as. the)'
othe r ~pilti allies. \\'hen he returned Leomdas lhei r heans sank. The)' \:new went. T he inhahi[an[s flw "'~ and
to Spana he "'''$ di sgrao.' ed and "'''' onl)' lbat there "" as no point in stay'ing, ll>c)' soul h 10 the moumains OUI of reach of
able to red«m himself by his extra- hauled in lhei r anchors and S-C1 off down the pillaging ooldicr., ~ l ha t wrre
o rdinary courage alt he bame of Ptaraea rhe cha nncl lowa rds t he F,uriru~. T he y Clughl "'-cre .hown no merC)', Phocis
the followillg year , sailrd in thei r appointw order , with tile ",'as 10 be ma de an el<.3m pk fo r [he rest
.-\s for Ephialtes. , a pri...-e "'as put 011 Corinthians making u p the vang ua rd of GI'C«C to see and "'-cig h ceeruuv
his head, fi e fled imo T hc>.saly, feari lti and the Alhenians bringing up t he rea! before the~' de..-ided to continue rhe un-
t ha t the Sp;on ans "" ou ld hum him down, T he ha ttered G ree\: flee t limped equal conresr.
Yea'" later he retu rne d 10 his home at so\lIhw"rd , pa ssing t h roug h the Euri - T he demo nstrat ion was nOi wasted
Anticyra, ",'here he was killed by a mall pus, down past the slle of the great T he towns of Boeotia offered eart h and
who had a private grud ge against him At henian victory al ,\ tarat hon, around wate r. the token"f submission. and Ihey
hm who neven hel ess claimed the re- Cape Su oiu m and u p to At hens. The Were spared but Ihey were compelled,
"" ard. Petsi..ns had no t seen the G reek tleel in ac"COrdancc with t he norma l Persian
At abou t the S<lme ti me as the last of slip ..way-s-once again IOC haze had custom. to sc nd co nt inllcnts to tillht o n
the Spartans died in the pass, t he Per. cove red Ihe Ath.."nian movements , The y the Persian side , Herodotus ' clai m t ha i
"an /led, stung hy the attack of the did m't learn of the tleet's de parture the T he h ~n, surrendered at T hermo_
previo us evclli nl:, put to sea and eru"ed L1 l1 t il early t he followi ng morning. p,. lae may be true. as only the tuwns of
the cha nnel in force . The G ree b, who The sp i"e "nd P lataea were listed for
were determ ined to maintain dose con· T he f a n of A thens de struction : t he Th espians for t he patt
tact with their camp , lined u p fo r battle The d ISaster at Thermopylae, and e<- they played at T hermo pyb e , and the
in the shallo"'. iust " fJ t he beach. T he pc<;iall y the failure to rehe ve the tTOOPS P lat aean. for figh ting on t he Al henian
Persian shiP'S fo rmed a half circle and in the pa~ s, had a se r ious effect on t he ~ide at ,\1arath on and fo r se rvi ng wit h
tried to eng ul f the smaller Greek fleet. morale of Sparta ", alii•.,., Tm: ancient the At henian fleet a t Anemisium
Once again the Gn-ch charged head on , accoums imply that t he re were se riol" These Platacan sa ilors ha d disem-
crashing into rhe bows of t he lighter defeclio ns amongst the nort h-weste rn ha ri<.w at C halas when the flcct was
Pe",ian '·essel•. In Ihe engagement t he Pcl"ponne~ian s , 'X"cs tern Arcadia had pass inll lhroug h Ihe Euripus and made
Greclts we re roug hly hand led and lost su pplied a q uarter of the Peloponn....i"n t hei r way- home so t haI the)' could help
several shiP'S. but the)' also inflicted lmops in Leo n idas arm y, but the fol. in t he evacuation of the [O""n. Hnth l he
"",,'en casuahin on Ihel< """mies, Io",-jng yeat when t he call fo r troops I'latacans and the Thespians were
\X'hen tbe P ersians found that they were wem coul 10 the whole of the Pelopon- e-vllCWIIN to t he P elo pormcsln .
achiC"'ing little t ~· wit hdrew. Al-
Illou gh ne ithe r .ide c--ould cla im a ,'ic-
tory . the Greeks ha d been severely
maulrd . About 90 Athenian shi ps had
,,"Ian l .<:lIg ue, not a single unit "'''~
senl.
O n l he Ihird da y- after taking [he pa $'S
the I'e";an army se[ out again . The
.-
....".. _ " I l _ POl""" ~ ~ ..... '"
_,,,,, 10 A""-,,, The G"", ' '",",_
boNcfIed '" ,.... ~l P¥I ~ _ .,.."...
suffered damage . baKSa~ lrain. especially' the hell")'
on tIw ..., (''IIhl) sOOt of "'" oJ...", and tile
Saon afte r the hattie the jo-oared gal- wallons. must have gone b )" the coast Pe<.,. n _ , w... bNct>e<l .. Pho ~'um &v

,'-
lt PSO(OOTA LI
 THE C I TY S T ATE S 800- 360 ec
TH E STATES AT W AR

The Persian arm y pre"ed o n south - wante d to q ui t t he ir posit ion at Sa lamis Athens. Among t he minor contingen ts
eastward, and en tered Attica. A then s and jo in up wit h t he army at Corint h, the larges t numbers were f((lm Aegma
was a scene of feverish aetl vit y a, the wherea s t he .'1.t henians quite u nder- (30), Chaki s (20) "nd .\1egara ( 20 ), The
population tried to evaCuate the city . ,tandably refused 10 abandon the ir subsequent ha ltle for mat ion im pl ies
Most of the women am! children ,vcre fam ltie' on t he island . thal the Athenians occupied [he bay
ferried across the Sar<mic Gulf to The mlStod e" in "pite of "ppos ition of I'aloukia, the l' elojXl nnesi"ns t he
T roeze tl on the nort h-cast cornet of the from the Corinthi ans, m'lnaged to con- northern bay of Arapi" and the o t hers
Pelopo nnesu s. Somc wetc ,em to the .- ince Euryb iadas, th e Spa rtan admiral, the ,0Ulhern bay of Amhelaki, for t hi,
island ofAeg inaand the remainder, wit h t hat if he left Sabmis the flee t wo uld i, how t hey formed u p in ba ttle line ,
all t he able -bodied men , were re movcd d isintegra te a, ea ~h sq uadron looked lO Aeschylu, in his play The Pc"",,,,
to the i, land of Salamis in the hay of the defence of its own territory. give. lhe G reek numbers a, 3 t O, but he
Eleusis on ly JUS! over a kilometre from has probably red uced the number for
the Athcnia n coast. T he n ac ua twn was The b "ttl., o f S a l<O mi s effect, just as he has , urely g rossly ex-
earne d o ut in such a pa nic th~t many of As Pritchett remarked whe n he puh- aggerate d the Pers ian numbers . ' 1-1 0 \\
the o ld and helple,. were left to their lished his second art icle on the ba tlle of greal was t he number of the Gr~,<;k ships
fate. A few ' zealo t s' >Iayed behind and Sa lam is in Iyl'i 5, there have probab ly tha t dared with theIr ra m, to engage the
barricaded themselves in the temples. been more art icles published on this l' ersian h",t /' T he ans wer - 310 Greek
Earlie r, when the Atheniam had sent battle than any other lfl worl d history- Jga in' t 1,~07 Persian 'r he PerSIan
to the oracle at Delphi to ask f" r it. Hcrodotus devotcd th e eq uiva lem of a figure is obviously not meant to h~ taken
advice, they had received a rep ly which ho"k to it and Aeschylus wrote a play serio usly a, this is lhe number of ships
contained the sentence: 'Zeus of t he about it . It is also dealt with by Pluta rch given by He rodm us for t he beginning of
broad heav ens grants to the Triton bo rn l n 1",0 of his lives and Diodor us S l(ulu" the campa ign and . even if t he origmal
a wooden wall alone to rem "tn un,aeked, who "1", gIves an a(eOurn of thc hall ie. figure were to be accepted, it makes no
that shall help thee and th}' "hildren' , Am ongst the modern w m mentalOr" allowance fo r the hundreds of ships
Th i, ,m, int er preted by Themi,tocles l\' G L H am mond give, the most lost in t hc storm, along t he cast coast .
to mean that t he y ,hnuld lake to t heir complete survey in wh ich he inclu de s To suggesr that the Ileet was bro ug ht u p
wooden ,hips , .\-l ost Athen iam a~cepted some vCt y important o t" crvation, . He to exactly t he same strength by re-
thi, interpreta tion, but a d issent mg is 'lui tc righ t in im isti ng that Aes chylus inforce ments is qui te ahsurd.
minority bui lt a pali,ade arou nd t he lOp shou ld be used as , air hough the eviden,'e T h,' st rength of the Persian fleet ma y
of the Acro p"lis and t here awaited the comes from his play , the Pers;an.<. and be gues,ed by examining the Persian
Persiam . he has us ed considera ble 'poe tic lice nce' st rategy, Agai n and ag~i n H erodotus
,\leanwhile t he Spartans had at la, t in hi, presentat ion of t h~ m"teriaL he , tresse s t he su periori ty of t he Persian
mobilised t hei r ar my and a"embled at foug ht in t he hattie and t herefore must , h ips and se amen, so it i, dear t hat
Corinth under the command of the sur- be treated as an eyewitness. Xetxes d id not need to o utnum ber the
vi"i ng king Clcornb rorus They broke \X'hile X ct xes h~ d becn pUlting down Greeh to expect to win. W hy the n d id
up th~ coast roa d along t he isthmus and t hc rc ,is t anc~ al Athens the two ficets Xerxe, not hl<K"bd e th e Greek ttccr in
threw up a rampart aero" Its narrowest lay al an,'hor, each wait ing for t he other t he Sa lam is chan nel wit h half his Ileet
pan ncar where t he Corimh ,hip cana l to make the fi rst move . T he ma in I'e r- and t hen lau nch J two- pro nged atta"k
now runs . sian fleet was be ached m the bay 01 on t he Peloponnesu~, by land along t he
T he Pe" ian army cont inued ir. t hrust Ph"lerum iust south of At he ns, while isth mus and by sea wllh the remainder
southward" laying waStC the ~"untry­ deta "hme ms were anchore d at Ihe en- of t he fleet '
sioe ",hilst t he lIeet sailed down the t rance to the Salamis strai t. He rodotu, T he attrac tion of t his cou rse of a~t io n
coast burning t he ,ea,ide villages , T hey later mentions de tachments at Ccos and "enormous. C ut off by land and sea , the
occupied Athens and capture d t hc Cyno'ura. Ceos is impmsi ble [0 identify gre at numb er of Alheni~ ns On Salam is
A~ropoJis , bUl only afte r a dogged re- bUi it may he "ne "fthe two small islands would soon have exhausted thei r mea gre
sisrance by its defenders , Th~y then off Lipsokou tali. Cv nosura (t he dog 's su pplies . In a ,-cry short time they would
lo oted and bu rned t he temple, and all lail), howeve r, is easy t o identify a~ the ha ve been sta rved into submission ,
thc other buildi ngs on the anciem "i ta- long, narrow prom ontory projecti ng Xer xes was unahle to adop l t hese tactics
del. On the isbnd of Salamis the eastwa rds fro m Salam is island. for one simp le reJson - he had neit her
:\ lhenian. m us t ha.-e b~"£ n a ble to sec T his places t he (~ree k ancbm age enough ships nor so ldier' to accomplish
the col um n of smoke that marked the farther u p t he channel, probably d ivided the t ask j t is likely th at t he Pe rsian lIeet
end of th"l r city. The l'e" ian lIeet into t hree parts : o ne in the ba y of Am- now numbe red no more t han 500
moved up the Anic coast and h~aehe d at belaki in fro nt of the an~iem town of .- esse ls.
the o ld o pen harbour of Phalcrum. Salam i. ; ano ther in t he hay of P alo ukia; Once again rhe Per, ians appear 10
The ( i reek fleet "la, bca(hed o n the and a t hird in t he ooyof Arapis . H erod- have waited several days to see if t he
east side of Sal am i, . There was a furo re otus gives the n umber of shi ps in the G reek Ilcct would abandon its pos it ion .
on t he " land as the adm irals of t he G reek lIeet as 380. O f t h" number 89 Xer xe, must have k no wn tha t, as usua l,
\'ari(m , tle ets arg ucd a bo ut what t o d c) came from the Pelo po nnesus (t his in· the Gr eeks we re at log ge rhe ad~ , The
Th e , quadrons from the Pelo ponnesus d ude s 40 fro m Corinth ) and )80 from story t hat it was Themi 'lOdes who

'5
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