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JEWS IN ITALY UNDER FASCIST AND NAZI RULE

Jews in Italy under Fascist and Nazi Rule, 1922–1945, brings to light
the Italian-Jewish experience from the start of Mussolini’s prime min-
istership through the end of the Second World War. Challenging the
myth of Italian benevolence during the Fascist period, the authors in-
vestigate the treatment of Jews by Italians during the Holocaust and
the native versus foreign roots of Italian Fascist anti-Semitism. Each
essay in this volume illustrates a different aspect of Italian Jewry under
Fascist and Nazi rule. Areas of inquiry include the role of the Catholic
Church with special reference to Pope Pius XII, Mussolini’s attitude,
and anti-Jewish persecution. Included also is an examination of cover
images and articles from the Italian racist newspaper, La Difesa della
Razza, intended to lay bare the influence of the Italian media on the
general Italian public.

Joshua D. Zimmerman is an associate professor of history and the Eli

and Diana Zborowski Professorial Chair in Interdisciplinary Holocaust
Studies at Yeshiva University in New York City. He is the author of
Poles, Jews and the Politics of Nationality: The Bund and the Polish
Socialist Party in Late Tsarist Russia, 1892–1914 (2004), and editor
of Contested Memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and Its
Aftermath (2003).

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Jews in Italy under Fascist and

Nazi Rule, 1922–1945

Edited by
Joshua D. Zimmerman
Yeshiva University

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CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521841016

C Joshua D. Zimmerman 2005

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2005

Printed in the United States of America

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Jews in Italy under Fascist and Nazi rule, 1922–1945 / edited by Joshua D. Zimmerman.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-521-84101-1 (hardcover)
1. Jews – Italy – History – 20th century. 2. Jews – Persecutions – Italy.
3. Holocaust, Jewish (1939–1945) – Italy. 4. Italy – History – 1922–1945.
5. Italy – Ethnic relations. I. Zimmerman, Joshua D. II. Title.
DS135.I8J48 2005
305.892 4045 09044 – dc22 2004024830

ISBN-13 978-0-521-84101-6 hardback

ISBN-10 0-521-84101-1 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for

the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or
third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this book
and does not guarantee that any content on such
Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

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For Ruthi

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CONTENTS

Acknowledgments page xi
Abbreviations xiii
List of Contributors xiv
Map 1 The Jews of Italy, 1938 xx
Map 2 Principal Centers of Anti-Jewish Persecution, 1938–1943 xxi

Introduction 1
Joshua D. Zimmerman

PART ONE: ITALIAN JEWRY FROM LIBERALISM TO FASCISM

1 The Double Bind of Italian Jews: Acceptance

and Assimilation 19
Alexander Stille
2 Italian Jewish Identity from the Risorgimento to Fascism,
1848–1938 35
Mario Toscano
3 Mussolini and the Jews on the Eve of the March on Rome 55
Giorgio Fabre

PART TWO: RISE OF RACIAL PERSECUTION

4 Characteristics and Objectives of the Anti-Jewish Racial Laws in

Fascist Italy, 1938–1943 71
Michele Sarfatti
5 The Exclusion of Jews from Italian Academies 81
Annalisa Capristo
6 The Damage to Italian Culture: The Fate of Jewish University
Professors in Fascist Italy and After, 1938–1946 96
Roberto Finzi

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viii Contents

7 Building a Racial State: Images of the Jew in the Illustrated Fascist

Magazine, La Difesa della Razza, 1938–1943 114
Sandro Servi
8 The Impact of Anti-Jewish Legislation on Everyday Life and the
Response of Italian Jews, 1938–1943 158
Iael Nidam-Orvieto
9 The Children of Villa Emma at Nonantola 182
Klaus Voigt
10 Anti-Jewish Persecution and Italian Society 199
Fabio Levi

PART THREE: CATASTROPHE – THE GERMAN OCCUPATION,

1943–1945

11 The Shoah in Italy: Its History and Characteristics 209

Liliana Picciotto
12 The Möllhausen Telegram, the Kappler Decodes, and the
Deportation of the Jews of Rome: The New CIA-OSS Documents,
2000–2002 224
Robert Katz
13 The Persecution of Jews in Two Regions of German-Occupied
Northern Italy, 1943–1945: Operationszone Alpenvorland and
Operationszone Adriatisches Küstenland 243
Cinzia Villani
Map 3 Italy and the two German-controlled Operationszonen 260
Map 4 The two Operationszonen in detail with provincial capitals 261

PART FOUR: THE VATICAN AND THE HOLOCAUST IN ITALY

14 The Papal Response to Nazi and Fascist Anti-Semitism:

From Pius XI to Pius XII 265
Frank J. Coppa
15 Pius XII and the Rescue of Jews in Italy: Evidence of a Papal
Directive 287
Susan Zuccotti
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Contents ix

PART FIVE: AFTERMATH: CONTEMPORARY ITALY

AND HOLOCAUST MEMORY

16 The Rescued and the Rescuers in Private and Public Memories 311
Anna Bravo
17 Return of the Repressed: Italian Film and Holocaust Memory 321
Millicent Marcus
18 The Secret Histories of Roberto Benigni’s Life Is Beautiful 330
Ruth Ben-Ghiat

Index 351
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book was made possible by a generous grant from the Eli and Diana
Zborowski Chair in Interdisciplinary Holocaust Studies at Yeshiva University.
The majority of essays were first presented at the international Holocaust con-
ference on Italian Jewry held at Yeshiva University in October 2002. My heartfelt
thanks go to the participants, to the contributors to this volume, and to those
who helped in organizing it, particularly my wife, Ruth Servi Zimmerman, who
acted as conference secretary, as well as to professors Arthur Hyman and Jeffrey
Gurock of Yeshiva University’s Bernard Revel Graduate School of Jewish Studies.
For the preparation and selection of essays for this volume, I owe a particular
debt of gratitude to Borden W. Painter, professor of history and director of Italian
Programs at Trinity College, who generously gave of his time by agreeing to
read and provide feedback on the entire manuscript. I am also grateful to the
anonymous Cambridge outside readers who provided a valuable critique of the
manuscript, as well as to Jonathan Steinberg, professor of history at the University
of Pennsylvania, for his valuable comments and feedback. I would also like to
thank, in particular, Sandro Servi, who gave freely and generously of his time
in responding to questions on various aspects of Italian Jewish history and who
provided valuable suggestions at the initial planning stages of the conference. In
addition, Giorgio Fabre and Michele Sarfatti were extraordinarily helpful in their
prompt and thorough replies to pointed questions on twentieth-century Italian
history in general and on Italian Jewish history in particular.
Last but not least, I would like to acknowledge the exceptional work of
Loredana M. Melissari, who translated chapters 3, 4, 9, 11, and 13 and a few
passages from chapter 9, and of Antony Shugaar, who translated chapters 2 and
7, as well as the conclusion to chapter 13. Finally, Maurizio Molinari, Ruth Servi
Zimmerman, and Cinzia Villani helped keep errors in the Italian to a minimum
by kindly agreeing to proofread parts of the manuscript.

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ABBREVIATIONS

CDEC Center for Contemporary Jewish Documentation, Milan

Delasem Delegation for the Assistance of Jewish Immigrants
PCI Italian Communist Party
Questori Provincial police chiefs
RSHA Central Office for the Security of the German Reich
RSI Italian Social Republic/Republic of Salo`

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Ruth Ben-Ghiat is associate professor in the Departments of Italian Studies and

History at New York University. She is the author of Fascist Modernities: Italy,
1922–45 (2001) and of many book chapters and articles on Italian Fascist cul-
ture and its memory. She is also coeditor, with Mia Fuller, of Italian Colonialism:
A Reader (forthcoming, 2005). She is currently writing a book on Italian pris-
oners of war and the transition from dictatorship to be published by Princeton
University Press.
Anna Bravo taught social history at Turin University and is currently an in-
dependent scholar living in Turin. Her research and writing deal with gender
history, wartime armed and civil resistance, and deportation and genocide. She
is co-author of In guerra senza armi. Storia di donne 1940–1945 (2000) [In the
War without Arms: A History of Women, 1940–1945] and has written numerous
distinguished articles and book chapters on Italy and modern memory of the
Holocaust.
Annalisa Capristo graduated in philosophy at the University of Rome “La
Sapienza” and specialized in library management at the School of the Vatican
Library. She obtained an annual scholarship from the Istituto Italiano per gli
Studi Storici, founded by Benedetto Croce in Naples, and a triennial scholarship
from the Accademia nazionale dei Lincei in Rome. She is currently librarian at
the Center for American Studies in Rome. Capristo is the author of L’espulsione
degli ebrei dalle accademie italiane (2002) [The Expulsion of Jews from the
Italian Academies] and has published in La Rassegna mensile di Israel.
Frank J. Coppa is professor of history at St. John’s University in New York,
director of their University Symposium on Vatican Studies, and director of the
university’s doctoral degree in modern world history. Coppa is the author of a se-
ries of biographies, including Pope Pius IX: Crusader in a Secular Age (1979) and
Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli and Papal Politics in European Affairs (1990). More
recently he published the fifth and final volume in the Longman History of the
Papacy, titled The Modern Papacy (1998), and in 1999 he served as editor-in-chief
and contributor to Encyclopedia of the Vatican and Papacy and Controversial

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List of Contributors xv

Concordats: The Vatican’s Relations with Napoleon, Mussolini, and Hitler. He

has reviewed all the popes and anti-popes for the Encyclopedia Britannica’s
online references to the papacy and all the popes from the Renaissance through
Gregory XVI for the new edition of The Catholic Encyclopedia. He has also
served as general editor and contributor to Great Popes Through History (2002)
and published The Papacy Confronts the Modern World (2003) in the Avil series.
Giorgio Fabre received his PhD in Italian literature at the University of Rome.
He is a journalist and since 1990 has worked for the Rome-based Panorama
magazine. He has published several books and essays that have focused on Italian
intellectuals, the Jews, censorship, and the police, especially in the Fascist period.
His most recent books are L’elenco. Censura fascista, editoria e autori ebrei (1998)
[The List: Fascist Censorship, Publishing and Jewish Authors] and Il contratto.
Mussolini editore di Hitler [The Contract: Mussolini, Hitler’s Editor] (2004).
Roberto Finzi is professor of economic history at the University of Trieste. His
research focuses on eighteenth-century economic thought, the history of agricul-
ture and agronomy, the history of the climate, and the history of socialist move-
ments and socialist thought. He is also interested in the Jewish problem under
varied aspects and has published numerous essays, one of which was published
in book form in English under the title Antisemitism: From Its European Roots
to the Holocaust (1999). His book L’università italiana e le leggi antiebraiche
(1997; 2nd ed., 2003) [The Italian University and the Anti-Jewish Laws] is the
first comprehensive study of anti-Semitic persecution in the Italian universities.
His works have been translated into French, English, Japanese, and Spanish.
Robert Katz is the author of twelve books and eight screenplays, including three
adaptations from his own works: Death in Rome, The Cassandra Crossing, and
Days of Wrath. A longtime resident of Italy, he has written extensively on Italian
themes, particularly in the modern and contemporary periods, and maintains
an Internet-based English-language reference work on Modern Italian history
(www.theboot.it). He is the author of Black Sabbath: A Journey Through a Crime
against Humanity (1969), a study of the roundup and deportation of the Jews
of Rome. His latest book is The Battle for Rome: The Germans, the Allies, the
Partisans, and the Pope, September 1943–June 1944 (2003).
Fabio Levi is professor of contemporary history at the University of Turin. His
first studies were devoted to the industrial development of modern Italy. Since the
1980s, Levi has focused on the history of Jews in Italy. He has published six books,
including L’ebreo in oggetto. L’applicazione della normativa antiebraica a Torino,
1938–1943 (1991) [The Implementation of Anti-Jewish Laws in Turin, 1938–
1943], L’identità imposta. Un padre ebreo di fronte alle leggi razziali di Mussolini
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xvi List of Contributors

(1996) [The Imposed Identity: A Jewish Father Faces Mussolini’s Racial Laws],
and Le case e le cose. La persecuzione degli ebrei torinesi nelle carte dell’EGELI
1938–1945 (1998) [Real Estate and Objects: Persecution of the Jews of Turin
in the Files of EGELI, 1938–1945], a study on confiscation of Jewish property
during the Racial Laws.
Millicent Marcus is Mariano DiVito Professor of Italian Studies and director of
the Center of Italian Studies at the University of Pennsylvania. Her specializations
include Italian cinema and medieval literature. She is the author of An Allegory
of Form: Literary Self-Consciousness in the ‘Decameron’ (1979), Italian Film in
the Light of Neorealism (1986), Filmmaking by the Book: Italian Cinema and
Literary Adaptation (1993), and After Fellini: National Cinema in the Postmodern
Age (2002), as well as numerous articles on Italian literature and film. She is
now conducting research on the recent surge of Italian films that deal with the
subject of the Shoah and is working on a translation of the precursor text to
Levi’s Survival at Auschwitz.
Iael Nidam-Orvieto received her PhD in 2003 at the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem, where she teaches Holocaust history at the Institute of Contemporary
Jewry. She was a research Fellow at the Yad Vashem International Research Insti-
tute in Jerusalem in 2004, and, in 2005, will be a research Fellow at the University
of Pisa and at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Nidam-Orvieto
has published numerous articles on Italian Jews during the Fascist period and
on the rescue of children during the Holocaust as well as edited several Italian
Jewish diaries and memoirs. She is preparing two books for publication: “The
Villa Emma Children – a Story of Rescue During the Holocaust,” and “Between
Discrimination and Persecution: The Reaction of Italian Jewry to an Ever In-
creasing Crisis.”
Liliana Picciotto was born in Egypt in 1947. She studied in Milan, where she
received her PhD in political science at the State University. Since 1969 she
has worked at the Center for Contemporary Jewish Documentation in Milan,
where she is director of Historical Archives, and as a researcher in contemporary
Jewish history, Fascism, the period of the German Occupation, and the Shoah
in Italy. She also serves on the editorial board of La Rassegna mensile di
Israel, the journal for Jewish studies of the Union of Italian Jewish Commu-
nities. She is the author of, among others, L’occupazione tedesca e gli ebrei
di Roma (1979) [The German Occupation and the Jews of Rome]; Il libro
della memoria. Gli ebrei deportati dall’Italia 1943–1945 (1991; 3rd rev. ed.,
2002) [The Book of Memory: The Jews Deported from Italy, 1943–1945],
which was awarded the Acqui Storia prize and received special mention at
the Premio Viareggio; Gli ebrei a Milano. Persecuzione e deportazione 1943–
1945 (1992) [The Jews of Milan: Persecution and Deportation], and editor
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List of Contributors xvii

of Saggi sull’ebraismo italiano del Novecento in onore di Luisella Mortara

Ottolenghi (2003) [Essays on Twentieth-Century Italian Judaism in Honor of
Luisella Mortara Ottolenghi] a special two-volume issue of La Rassegna mensile
di Israel.

Michele Sarfatti is the author of several books and historical articles on

Italian Fascist anti-Semitism. In 2002, Sarfatti became director of the Center
for Contemporary Jewish Documentation in Milan. He is on the editorial board
of La Rassegna mensile di Israel and was a member of the Government Commis-
sion of Inquiry into the Confiscation of Jewish Property in Italy, 1938–1945. His
books include Mussolini contro gli ebrei. Cronaca dell’elaborazione delle leggi del
1938 (1994) [Mussolini against the Jews: A Chronicle of the Elaboration of the
1938 Racial Laws], Gli ebrei nell’Italia fascista. Vicende, identità, persecuzione
(2000) [The Jews in Fascist Italy: Identity and Persecution], and most recently,
Le leggi antiebraiche spiegate agli italiani di oggi (2002) [The Anti-Jewish Laws
as Explained to Italians Today].

Sandro Servi graduated from the University of Florence in the Department of

Philosophy, where he completed a thesis on “Psychological Contributions to the
Study of Antisemitism in Fascist Italy.” Between the 1980s and 1995, he held
annual seminars at the University of Florence on Judaism and anti-Semitism.
Since 1995, Servi has been a Fellow of the Jerusalem Fellows Program (Mandel
School of Jerusalem). In 1997, he founded Rimmonim: Jewish Publishing and
Communications, dedicated to the dissemination of Jewish traditional texts and
educational materials in the Italian language. He is recipient of two grants from
the Memorial Foundation for Jewish Culture for his project to prepare an Italian
edition of the Sefer ha-Aggadah by Bialyk and Rawnitski and is editor and co-
translator of the first Italian edition of Adin Steinsaltz’s introduction to Talmud,
Cos’è il Talmud (2004). Servi is currently coordinator of educational projects for
the Union of Italian Jewish Communities.

Alexander Stille is a distinguished author of three books. He graduated from

Yale University in 1978 and received an MA from the Columbia School of Jour-
nalism in 1983. He was an assistant editor at Mondadori in Milan and, between
1990 and 1993, a freelance correspondent in Italy. He is the author of the prize-
winning Benevolence and Betrayal: Five Italian Jewish Families under Fascism
(1991), Excellent Cadavers: The Mafia and the Death of the First Italian Republic
(1995), and, most recently, The Future of the Past (2002), a book about the ways
in which technology both preserves and destroys the past.

Mario Toscano is associate professor of the history of political movements and

parties at the University of Rome “La Sapienza.” He has written widely on
Italian Jewry. He is the author of, among others, La Porta di Sion. L’Italia e
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xviii List of Contributors

l’immigrazione clandestina ebraica in Palestina, 1945–1948 (1990) [The Gate-

way of Zion: Italy and Illegal Jewish Immigration to Palestine, 1945–1948] and
Ebraismo e antisemitismo in Italia. Dal 1848 alla guerra dei sei giorni (2003)
[Judaism and Anti-Semitism in Italy from 1848 to the Six Day War] and the
editor of L’abrogazione delle leggi razziali in Italia (1943–1987). Reintegrazione
dei diritti dei cittadini e ritorno ai valori del Risorgimento (1994) [The Repeal of
the Racial Laws in Italy, 1943–1987: Restoration of Law and Citizenship and the
Return of the Values of the Risorgimento], Stato nazionale ed emancipazione
ebraica (1992) [The National State and Jewish Emancipation], and Integrazione
e identità. L’esperienza ebraica in Germania e Italia dall’Illuminismo al Fascismo
(1988) [Integration and Identity: The Jewish Experience in Germany and Italy
from the Enlightenment to Fascism]. Toscano serves on the editorial board of
Zakhor, a journal devoted to Italian Jewish history, and he was appointed by
the Italian president’s council to serve on the Commission of Inquiry into the
Confiscation of Jewish Property in Italy, 1938–1945.
Cinzia Villani was born in Bolzano, Italy. She received her degree from the
University of Bologna, where she wrote a thesis on the history of the Jews in
South Tyrol. Since 1988, Villani has been teaching at an Italian middle school in
Bolzano. Her area of research includes racial persecution and the Final Solution
in the provinces of Belluno, Bolzano, Trento, and Trieste as well as the history
of the concentration camp of Bolzano. From September 1999 to January 2001,
she worked for the Italian government’s Commission of Inquiry into the Confis-
cation of Jewish Property in Italy, 1938–1945. She is the author of Ebrei fra leggi
razziste e deportazioni nelle province di Bolzano, Trento e Belluno (1996) [Jews
between the Racial Laws and Deportation from the Provinces of Bolzano, Trento
and Belluno], which appeared in German as Zwischen Rassengesetzen und De-
portation. Juden in Südtirol, im Trentino und in der Provinz Belluno 1933–1945
(2003), and co-author of Anche a volerlo raccontare è impossibile. Scritti e te-
stimonianze sul lager di Bolzano (1999) [It is Impossible Even If We Wanted to
Tell it: Writings and Testimonies on the Concentration Camp of Bolzano].
Klaus Voigt is an independent scholar in Berlin. He received his PhD at the Free
University in Berlin, where he wrote a thesis on Italian humanism. In the 1980s,
Voigt headed a project on refugees in wartime Italy as a research Fellow at the
University of Berlin. He has taught at the University of Nancy in France, Paris
University, the University of Bologna, and the European University in Florence.
He is the author of, among others, Il rifugio precario. Gli esuli in Italia dal 1933
al 1945 [The Precarious Refuge: Exiles in Italy, 1933–1945] 2 vols. (1993–1996).
Joshua D. Zimmerman is an associate professor of history and the Eli and Diana
Zborowski Professorial Chair in Interdisciplinary Holocaust Studies at Yeshiva
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List of Contributors xix

University in New York City. He is the author of Poles, Jews and the Politics
of Nationality: The Bund and the Polish Socialist Party in Late Tsarist Russia,
1892–1914 (2004), and editor of Contested Memories: Poles and Jews during the
Holocaust and Its Aftermath (2003).
Susan Zuccotti received her PhD in modern European history from Columbia
University. She is the author of The Italians and the Holocaust: Persecution,
Rescue and Survival (1987); The Holocaust, the French and the Jews (1993);
and, most recently, Under His Very Windows: The Vatican and the Holocaust in
Italy (2000). Her first book won a National Jewish Book Award for Holocaust
Studies in the United States and the Premio Acqui Storia – Primo Lavoro in
Italy. Her most recent book received a National Jewish Book Award for Jewish-
Christian Relations and the Sybil Halpern Milton Memorial Prize of the German
Studies Association in 2002. Dr. Zuccotti taught the history of the Holocaust at
Barnard College in New York and at Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut.
P1: IwX/KNP
0521841011agg.xml CB837-Zimmerman 0 521 84101 1 June 29, 2006 20:11

Merano
Gorizia
Trieste
Milan Verona Venice
Fiume
Vercelli Susak
Casale Mantova Padua Abbazia
Turin Monferrato
Asti Parma Ferrara
Alessandria
Genoa Modena
Bologna
Viareggio
Pisa Florence Spalato
Leghorn Ancona
Siena

Rome

Naples

The borders of Italy, 1938 Number of Jews

Yugoslav territory annexed in 1941 12000–13000
4000–6000
1000–2500
500–1000
100–500
MAP 1. The Jews of Italy, 1938.

xx
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