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Currency Wars with China and Japan
in Western Newsmagazines

This book explores China’s currency wars with its trading partners in four Western
newsmagazines: Time, The Economist, L’Express, and Der Spiegel. Based on
both quantitative and qualitative approaches, the interdisciplinary approach
adopted in the research draws on two analytical frameworks from the realm of
critical discourse analysis – van Leeuwen’s socio-semantic inventory of social-
actor representation, and van Dijk’s concepts of macro-rules – as the overarching
approaches to understand the changing dynamics of international relations and
the global economy through Western media. The sample in this study consists
of 160 texts, half of which are focused on China and the other half on Japan,
across a period of 12 months in 2010 (China) and in 1987 (Japan). Through the
comparison of Western representation between China and Japan, the similarities
and differences in their coverage have been revealed as even more striking with
regards to global politics and the international economy. The findings obtained
from the empirical research have revealed that China was not only reported more
unfavourably than Japan in terms of depth, but also across a broader range of
areas spanning economics, politics, and military affairs. It has also emerged that
all the four Western newsmagazines tended to centre their coverage on the US and
China in 2010, and the US and Japan in 1987, although they did not speak in one
collective voice with regard to their coverage of China and Japan.

Damien Ng is an Executive Director at Julius Baer, a Swiss private bank based

in Zurich. As a Thematic Research Analyst responsible for the ‘Arising Asia’ and
‘Shifting Lifestyle’ themes, he focuses on demographics and healthcare issues
ranging from genomics and digital health to extended longevity and healthy
living. Damien received his PhD at Durham University (UK).
Routledge Studies in Chinese Discourse Analysis
Series Editor: Chris Shei, Swansea University, UK

This series aims to examine Chinese discourse from a variety of angles, including:
linguistic, semiotic, philosophical, sociocultural, literary, political, technological,
psychological and neurocognitive perspectives.

News Framing through English-Chinese Translation

A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Media Discourse
Nancy Xiuzhi Liu

Taiwan
Manipulation of Ideology and Struggle for Identity
Edited by Chris Shei

China’s Contemporary Image and Rhetoric Practice

Edited by Weixiao Wei

Chinese News Discourse

From Perspectives of Communication, Linguistics and Pedagogy
Edited by Nancy Xiuzhi Liu, Candace Veecock and Shixin Ivy Zhang

Language Socialization in Chinese Diasporas

Indexicality of Confucius Ideologies in Family Talk
Hsin-fu Chiu

Currency Wars with China and Japan in Western Newsmagazines

Damien Ng

Language and Gesture in Chinese Communication

Kawai Chui

For more information about this series, please visit: https://www​.routledge​.com​/

Routledge​-Studies​-in​-Chinese​-Discourse​-Analysis​/book​-series​/RSCDA
Currency Wars with China
and Japan in Western
Newsmagazines

Damien Ng
First published 2022
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2022 Damien Ng
The right of Damien Ng to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 978-1-032-08008-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-08007-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-21249-2 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003212492
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Dedicated to my family in Europe and Asia
Contents

List of figures xii

List of tables xiii
Acknowledgement xvi
List of abbreviations xvii

1 Setting the scene: brewing tensions 1

1.1 Setting the scene: brewing tensions 1
1.1.1 Simmering tensions 3
1.1.2 Historical background: from rags to riches 4
1.1.3 Rationale and significance of the study 11
1.1.4 Research questions and hypothesis 13
1.1.5 Theories and methods 14
1.1.6 Contribution (filling the gap) 16
1.1.7 Structure of the monograph 17
Notes 18

2 Critical discourse analysis and Western representations of

China and Japan 20
2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Critical discourse analysis 20
2.2.1 What is discourse? 20
2.2.2 Overview of critical discourse analysis 22
2.2.3 What is ideology? 28
2.3 Shifting Western representations of China 29
2.3.1 China in the English-language literature:
Largely driven by bilateral relations and political
developments 29
2.3.2 China in the French-language literature: largely
focused on the Age of Enlightenment 37
viii Contents
2.3.3 China in the German-language literature: largely
driven by events 39
2.4 Shifting Western representations of Japan 43
2.5 Closing remarks 45
Notes 46

3 Data collection and analysis procedures 48

3.1 Data collection: decisions and procedures 48
3.2 Selection of Western countries 48
3.3 Selection of Western newsmagazines 48
3.3.1 Time – the US 49
3.3.2 The Economist – the UK 49
3.3.3 L’Express – France 50
3.3.4 Der Spiegel – Germany 50
3.4 Time period under study 50
3.5 Purposive-representative sampling 50
3.6 Corpus description 51
3.6.1 Headlines 51
3.6.2 Lead texts 52
3.6.3 Translation 52
3.7 Critical discourse analysis application I: van Dijk’s
macro-rules 53
3.7.1 Deletion 53
3.7.2 Generalisation 53
3.7.3 Construction 54
3.7.4 Zero-rule 54
3.7.5 Analytical procedures: deriving the topics of lead
texts 54
3.8 Critical discourse analysis application II: van Leeuwen’s
socio-semantic inventory 54
3.8.1 Representational categories 55
3.8.2 Analytical procedures: representation of social
actors 59
3.9 Closing remarks 59
Notes 60

4 Case study 1: China in 2010 – Social actors in the lead texts 61

4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 American perspective – Time 62
4.2.1 Overview 62
4.2.2 Representation of actors in frequency and
categories 62
 Contents  ix
4.3 British perspective – The Economist 82
4.3.1 Overview 82
4.3.2 Representation of actors in frequency and
categories 85
4.4 French perspective – L’Express 95
4.4.1 Overview 95
4.4.2 Representation of actors in frequency and
categories 102
4.5 German perspective – Der Spiegel 117
4.5.1 Overview 117
4.5.2 Representation of actors in frequency and categories 117
4.6 Closing remarks 137
Notes 139

5 Case study 2: Japan in 1987 – Social actors in the lead texts 140
5.1 Introduction 140
5.2 American perspective – Time 141
5.2.1 Overview 141
5.2.2 Representation of actors in frequency and
categories 141
5.3 British perspective – The Economist 160
5.3.1 Overview 160
5.3.2 Representation of actors in frequency and
categories 165
5.4 French perspective – L’Express 181
5.4.1 Overview 181
5.4.2 Representation of actors in frequency and
categories 188
5.5 German perspective – Der Spiegel 203
5.5.1 Overview 203
5.5.2 Representation of actors in frequency and
categories 208
5.6 Closing remarks 222
Notes 224

6 Answering the research questions 225

6.1 Introduction 225
6.2 Answering the research questions 226
6.2.1 Question 2: What were the prevailing topics
surrounding the rise of China and Japan in 2010 and
1987, respectively, in the lead texts of each of the four
newsmagazines? 226
x Contents
6.2.2 Question 3: What were the main representational
categories used to construct the social actors in the lead
texts of the four newsmagazines? 227
6.2.3 Question 4a: Who were the main social actors involved
in the representation of China and Japan in the lead
texts of each of the four newsmagazines? 227
6.2.4 Question 4b: How were they discursively represented
in relation to one another across the four
newsmagazines? 231
6.2.5 Question 5: Were China and Japan predominantly
appraised positively or negatively? 239
6.2.6 Question 1: What are the prevailing ideological
discourse(s) and dominant representations of China
and Japan in Time, The Economist, L’Express, and Der
Spiegel? 244

7 Discussions and conclusions 255

7.1 Hypothesis: China was reported more unfavourably
than Japan 256
7.1.1 Challenging America’s hegemony by an Economic
Other 256
7.1.2 Liberal international order threatened by a Political
Other 257
7.1.3 Ideological leanings of the newsmagazines 259
7.1.4 Discrepancy between L’Express and the other three
newsmagazines 260
7.2 Socio-cognitive level: enhancing van Dijk’s ideological
square 261
7.2.1 Dominant ideological discourses on China 262
7.2.2 Dominant ideological discourses on Japan 263
7.2.3 The ‘discourse of harm’ 264
7.3 Recent US–China relations and the ‘discourse of harm’ 266
7.3.1 US 2021 Interim National Security Strategy
Guidance 267
7.3.2 China’s 14th Five-Year Plan and outlook 268
7.4 Contributions of the study 269
7.4.1 Drawing on information from non-English primary
sources 269
7.4.2 Complementing the Anglo-American with Franco-
German perspectives 270
7.4.3 The author’s proposed ‘discourse of harm’ 270
 Contents  xi
7.5 Challenges and limitations encountered 271
7.5.1 Tackling challenges along the way 271
7.5.2 Limitations of the study 272
7.6 The road ahead 273
Notes 274

Bibliography 275
Appendix 300
Index 339
Figures

1.1 A glimpse at the economy of the six countries under study in

1978. Source: United Nations 5
2.1 Van Dijk’s four-strategy classification of ideological square 26
4.1 Overview of the top three key topics in each newsmagazine 138
5.1 Overview of the top three key topics in each Western
newsmagazine 223
6.1 Overview of agency inclusion/exclusion across
the 80 lead texts 229
6.2 Overview of agency inclusion/exclusion across
the 80 lead texts 230
6.3 Overview of non-agency inclusion/exclusion across
the 80 lead texts 232
6.4 Overview of non-agency inclusion/exclusion across
the 80 lead texts 236
6.5 Overview of activation/passivation across the 80 lead texts 248
6.6 Overview of activation/passivation across the 80 lead texts 253
7.1 Van Dijk’s four-strategy classification of ideological square 262
7.2 Mapping the findings of this study on China to van Dijk’s
ideological square model 263
7.3 Mapping the findings of this study on Japan to van Dijk’s
ideological square model 264
7.4 The author’s proposal of the ‘discourse of harm’ 265
Tables

1.1 Leading exporters in world merchandise trade – 1987 versus 2010 9

1.2 Leading importers in world merchandise trade – 1987 versus 2010 9
1.3 Gross domestic product of the top 11 countries – 1987 versus 2010 12
4.1 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (Time) – China in 2010 63
4.2 Inclusion/exclusion of agent actors in frequency and
percentage (Time) 67
4.3 Inclusion/exclusion of non-agent actors in frequency and
percentage (Time) 69
4.4 Activation/passivation in frequency and percentage (Time) 70
4.5 Funct​ional​isati​on/id​entif​icati​on/ap​prais​ement​in frequency and
percentage (Time) 73
4.6 Association/dissociation in frequency and percentage (Time) 77
4.7 Personalisation/impersonalisation in frequency and
percentage (Time) 80
4.8 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (The Economist) – China in 2010 83
4.9 Inclusion/exclusion of agent actors in frequency and
percentage (The Economist) 86
4.10 Inclusion/exclusion of non-agent actors in frequency and
percentage (The Economist) 87
4.11 Activation/passivation in frequency and percentage
(The Economist) 89
4.12 Funct​ional​isati​on/id​entif​icati​on/ap​prais​ement​in frequency and
percentage (The Economist) 90
4.13 Association/dissociation in frequency and percentage
(The Economist) 93
4.14 Personalisation/impersonalisation in frequency and percentage
(The Economist) 96
4.15 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (L’Express) – China in 2010 97
4.16 Inclusion/exclusion of main agent actors in frequency and
percentage (L’Express) 103
4.17 Inclusion/exclusion of main non-agent actors in frequency and
percentage (L’Express) 104
4.18 Activation/passivation in frequency and percentage (L’Express) 105
xiv Tables
4.19 Funct​ional​isati​on/id​entif​icati​on/ap​prais​ement​in frequency and
percentage (L’Express) 109
4.20 Association/dissociation in frequency and percentage (L’Express) 112
4.21 Personalisation/impersonalisation in frequency and percentage
(L’Express) 116
4.22 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (Der Spiegel) – China in 2010 118
4.23 Inclusion/exclusion of agent actors in frequency and percentage
(Der Spiegel) 124
4.24 Inclusion/exclusion of non-agent actors in frequency and
percentage (Der Spiegel) 125
4.25 Activation/passivation in frequency and percentage (Der Spiegel) 127
4.26 Funct​ional​isati​on/id​entif​icati​on/ap​prais​ement​in frequency and
percentage (Der Spiegel) 129
4.27 Association/dissociation in frequency and percentage (Der Spiegel) 133
4.28 Personalisation/impersonalisation in frequency and percentage
(Der Spiegel) 136
5.1 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (Time) – Japan in 1987 142
5.2 Inclusion/exclusion of agent actors in frequency and
percentage (Time) 146
5.3 Inclusion/exclusion of non-agent actors in frequency and
percentage (Time) 148
5.4 Activation/passivation in frequency and percentage (Time) 149
5.5 Funct​ional​isati​on/id​entif​icati​on/ap​prais​ement​in frequency and
percentage (Time) 153
5.6 Association/dissociation in frequency and percentage (Time) 156
5.7 Personalisation/impersonalisation in frequency and
percentage (Time) 159
5.8 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (The Economist) – Japan in 1987 161
5.9 Inclusion/exclusion of agent actors in frequency and
percentage (The Economist) 166
5.10 Inclusion/exclusion of non-agent actors in frequency and
percentage (The Economist) 167
5.11 Activation/passivation in frequency and percentage
(The Economist) 168
5.12 Funct​ional​isati​on/id​entif​icati​on/ap​prais​ement​in frequency and
percentage (The Economist) 171
5.13 Association/dissociation in frequency and percentage
(The Economist) 175
5.14 Personalisation/impersonalisation in frequency and percentage
(The Economist) 179
5.15 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (L’Express) – Japan in 1987 182
5.16 Inclusion/exclusion of agent actors in frequency and percentage
(L’Express) 189
5.17 Inclusion/exclusion of non-agent actors in frequency and
percentage (L’Express) 190
 Tables  xv
5.18 Activation/passivation in frequency and percentage (L’Express) 191
5.19 Funct​ional​isati​on/id​entif​icati​on/ap​prais​ement​ in frequency and
percentage (L’Express) 194
5.20 Association/dissociation in frequency and percentage (L’Express) 199
5.21 Personalisation/impersonalisation in frequency and percentage
(L’Express) 201
5.22 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (Der Spiegel) – Japan in 1987 204
5.23 Inclusion/exclusion of agent actors in frequency and percentage
(Der Spiegel) 209
5.24 Inclusion/exclusion of non-agent actors in frequency and
percentage (Der Spiegel) 210
5.25 Activation/passivation in frequency and percentage (Der Spiegel) 211
5.26 Funct​ional​isati​on/id​entif​icati​on/ap​prais​ement​ in frequency and
percentage (Der Spiegel) 215
5.27 Association/dissociation in frequency and percentage
(Der Spiegel) 218
5.28 Personalisation/impersonalisation in frequency and
percentage (Der Spiegel) 220
6.1 Overview of prevailing topics in the headlines and lead
texts on China 226
6.2 Overview of prevailing topics in the headlines and lead
texts on Japan 228
6.3 Overview of association/dissociation across the 80 lead texts 233
6.4 Overview of association/dissociation across the 80 lead texts 237
6.5 Overview of appraisement across the 80 lead texts 240
6.6 Overview of appraisement across the 80 lead texts 245
6.7 Overview of identification across the 80 lead texts 250
6.8 Overview of personalisation/impersonalisation across
the 80 lead texts 251
6.9 Overview of personalisation/impersonalisation across
the 80 lead texts 254
7.1 Nominal GDP of the top 11 countries at current prices as of June
2021 (2010 versus 2020) 260
4.1 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (Time) – China in 2010 301
4.8 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (The Economist) – China in 2010 304
4.15 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (L’Express) – China in 2010 306
4.22 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (Der Spiegel) – China in 2010 312
5.1 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (Time) – Japan in 1987 319
5.8 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (The Economist) – Japan in 1987 323
5.15 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (L’Express) – Japan in 1987 327
5.22 Prevailing topics of the lead texts (Der Spiegel) – Japan in 1987 334
Acknowledgement

This book was developed from my PhD thesis and it would not have been writ-
ten without the invaluable suggestions, unwavering support, and patience of
many people. In particular, the author would like to sincerely thank Dr Qing Cao,
Professor Claudia Nitschke, Mr Christophe Léonzi, Mrs Lucia Luck, Dr Simon
Ward, Mr Robert Gubler, and Mr Pedro Uribe. The methodology employed in this
book, that is, critical discourse analysis, is only possible thanks to the immensely
great contributions from Professor Teun van Dijk and Emeritus Professor Theo
van Leeuwen. The author is similarly grateful to Mrs Andrea Hartill and Ellie
Anton from Routledge, whose help and assistance with publishing this book has
been invaluable.
Abbreviations

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

CEFR Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
CDA Critical Discourse Analysis
CN China
CNN Cable News Network
EEC European Economic Community
EU European Union
FAT Four Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea,
Taiwan)
FDI Foreign direct investment
GDP Gross domestic product
GNI Gross national income
IMF International Monetary Fund
JP Japan
LT Lead text
n/a Not applicable
N. Korea North Korea
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
PPP Purchasing-power-parity
PRC People’s Republic of China
S. Africa South Africa
S. Arabia Saudi Arabia
S. Korea South Korea
SOE State-owned enterprise
SF Standfirst
UK United Kingdom
US United States
USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
W. Europe Western Europe
W. Germany West Germany
WTO World Trade Organization
1 Setting the scene: brewing tensions

1.1 Setting the scene: brewing tensions

Study the past if you would define the future
—Confucius (551 BC–479 BC)

温故而知新,可以为师矣 (wen gu er zhi xin, ke yi wei shi yi)

故きを温ね新しきを知る (furuki wo tazune atarashiki wo shiru

As governments across the world scrambled to implement lockdown measures

and secure vaccines for their citizens to stem the further spread of SARS-COV-2
amidst the global fall-out of COVID-19 in the year 2020, news reports about the
US–China trade war understandably faded into the background. Nonetheless, the
trade dispute between the US and China was still ongoing under the new Biden
administration at the time of writing this monograph. Although the bilateral trade
conflict started as a tit-for-tat tariff war between the US and China in 2018 under
the leadership of former US President Donald Trump (Heavey and Chen, 2018),
the conflict between the world’s two largest economies has since evolved into
a technology war, which has involved the US blacklisting major Chinese tech-
nology firms since 2019 (He, 2021; Donnan and Leonard, 2019), and a public
health spat in 2020 due to the outbreak of the pandemic (Wintour and Borger,
2020). As governments around the world are expected to intervene in the foreign
exchange markets to bolster their fragile economies, severely embattled by the
COVID-19 crisis, international news outlets have begun to express their growing
concerns that a currency war between both countries could be in the offing in a
post-COVID-19 world (Farley, 2021; The Economist, 2021; Jones and Howcroft,
2020; Pesek, 2020).
Furthermore, China’s inflexible foreign exchange system has often irked the
leaders of major Western economies, particularly the US. Given that the Chinese
authorities are presently charging ahead with a national digital currency, some
economists and political scientists have viewed the development of a crypto-
renminbi as a potential challenge to the global dominance of the US dollar since
the conclusion of the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944 (Lo, 2020; Mahbubani,

DOI: 10.4324/9781003212492-1
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