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Felt-000.FM 8/1/07 5:45 PM Page i

AIMS
Felt-000.FM 8/1/07 5:45 PM Page ii
Felt-000.FM 8/1/07 5:45 PM Page iii

AIMS
A Brief Metaphysics
for Today

James W. Felt

University of Notre Dame Press

Notre Dame, Indiana


Felt-000.FM 8/1/07 5:45 PM Page iv

Copyright © 2007 by University of Notre Dame


Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
www.undpress.nd.edu
All Rights Reserved

Designed by Wendy McMillen


Set in 10.1/ 13.6 Sabon by Four Star Books

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Felt, James W., 1926–


Aims : a brief metaphysics for today / James W. Felt.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-268-02901-2 (pbk. : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-268-02901-6 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Metaphysics. I. Title.
BD111. F275 2007
110— dc22

2007030482

∞ This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper).


Felt-000.FM 8/1/07 5:45 PM Page v

For Richard and Rosemary Blackwell


Felt-000.FM 8/1/07 5:45 PM Page vi
Felt-000.FM 8/1/07 5:45 PM Page vii

Contents

Preface ix

Chapter 1 The Beginning 1

Chapter 2 A Brief Description of Experiencing 9

Chapter 3 Interlude on Method 17

Chapter 4 A Preliminary Metaphysical


Interpretation of Experience 27

Chapter 5 Aims and the Experiencing Subject 31

Chapter 6 The Object-Structure of Immediate


Experience: Space 37

Chapter 7 The Subject-Structure of Immediate


Experience: Time 41

Chapter 8 On the Interactions of Primary Beings 45

Chapter 9 Free Acts 55

Chapter 10 The Basic Structure of Primary Beings 61

Chapter 11 Existing as Participated Act 71


Felt-000.FM 8/1/07 5:45 PM Page viii

Chapter 12 Participation and God 77

Chapter 13 The Problem of the Origin of


Essential Aims 83

Chapter 14 Three Options for a Solution 89

Chapter 15 Making a Choice 99

Chapter 16 “Know Yourself!” 117

Notes 127

Bibliography 139

Index 143
AIMS

viii
Felt-000.FM 8/1/07 5:45 PM Page ix

Preface

“Know yourself!” challenged the Oracle of Delphi, and phi-


losophers engaged in metaphysics or “first philosophy” have
struggled to meet that challenge ever since. No ordinary kind
of knowing, metaphysics necessarily includes knowing our re-
lation to the peopled world in which we live. Neither is it sci-
entific knowing in the modern sense. It is such an unusual kind
of knowing that its peculiarity has led many modern philoso-
phers to deny that it exists or could even make any sense.
I disagree with that view and submit the following short
essay as a project in metaphysics. Now no philosophic view,
even if it is internally coherent, is directly demonstrable. It can
only recommend itself as more consonant with and illumina-
tive of direct human experience than its denial.
As illustrative of what I mean by metaphysical knowing,
I cite this description of it by Etienne Gilson: “Metaphysics is
the knowledge gathered by a naturally transcendent reason
in its search for the first principles, or first causes, of what is
given in sensible experience.”1 There are two peripheral points
implied in this description.
The first point is the question of how we derive the prin-
ciples underlying such an account in terms of causes and prin-
ciples. In this regard I submit that we normally adopt such

ix
Felt-000.FM 8/1/07 5:45 PM Page x

principles to the degree that they seem consonant with what


we find in immediate experience, as well as illuminative of that
experience when taken in their full-blown applications. There
is no getting away from looking at the world through some set
of philosophic assumptions or other, but the adoption of such
assumptions is more often subconscious and implicit than rec-
ognized, and implicit assumptions are all the more influential
for their being unnoticed.
The second point is that such a set of principles, acknowl-
edged or implied, constitutes a metaphysical perspective that
in turn establishes a possible intelligible horizon determina-
tive of the sort of objective world that can be recognized from
such a perspective. As Oz explained to Dorothy, everything in
Emerald City looked green to her because she was wearing
green glasses. The world revealed to us in our philosophy is
pretty much the world we were looking for, the world that fits
our adopted philosophic perspective.
The aim of this essay is to establish just such a philosophic
perspective through which we can plausibly view ourselves and
our relation to the world. In short it is to respond, at least in
a limited and provisional way, to the Delphic challenge. The
result will be a brief, bare-bones metaphysics, but a metaphys-
ics nonetheless.
It may be helpful to the reader to know the provenance of
this essay. In the early 1970s I proposed that it might be worth
trying to combine the better insights and principles of the phi-
losophies of St. Thomas Aquinas of the thirteenth century and
Alfred North Whitehead of the twentieth, while omitting what
seem to be the weaker aspects, so as to achieve a transformed
and more modern philosophic perspective.2 In my book Com-
ing To Be (2001) I very belatedly published a defense and first
sketch of what such a metaphysics might be like. The present
AIMS

essay is the natural follow-up of this project, but here I pay


much less attention to the actual philosophies of Aquinas and
Whitehead and much more to my own manner of melding the

x
Felt-000.FM 8/1/07 5:45 PM Page xi

two. I leave it to the reader to judge whether the attempt is


successful, at least as a beginning.
Of course there are other philosophic influences at work
here as well, and I want to acknowledge that the chief intellec-
tual assumptions dominating the following discussion seem to
me to be the following:
(1) The ontology of St. Thomas Aquinas whose central
philosophic insight pivots around participation in the act of
existing (esse) with its bipolar directionality reminiscent of
Plotinus: its flowing from a Source and its simultaneous ori-
entation back toward that Source.
(2) Henri Bergson’s stress on the intuitive aspect of philo-
sophic insight, of the distinction between the continuity inher-
ent in immediate experience and that of quantity or space, and
of the authenticity of the feeling of freedom within human
deciding.
(3) Alfred North Whitehead’s recognition of a level of sen-
sory experience that runs deeper than what is ordinarily no-
ticed. On this more fundamental level we are immediately
aware of being causally influenced by things in the world, of
the derivation of the present from the past, and of the value
dimension of experience that partially grounds a teleological
metaphysics.
(4) The phenomenological point of view, such as that of
Maurice Merleau-Ponty, with its subject-object polarity of ex-
perience and its perspectival-horizonal view of the world.3
In the considerations that follow I have allowed the argu-
ment to grow by itself in a natural way. Thus the elaboration
is self-referential, sometimes repetitious, and cumulative rather
than linear (which would be far from natural). For that reason
I venture to make the same appeal as did George Berkeley in
the preface to his Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human
Knowledge: that the reader withhold judgment on this view
until he or she has read through the whole with the attention
it may seem to deserve.4

Preface — xi
Felt-000.FM 8/1/07 5:45 PM Page xii

Whatever the merit of this present experiment in construc-


tive metaphysics, I wish to express indebtedness to my philoso-
phy teachers and colleagues over many years whose wisdom
has doubtless affected my thinking in more ways than I know.
I think especially of W. Norris Clarke, S.J., of Fordham Uni-
versity, and of John H. Wright, S.J., of Gonzaga University,
who opened for me the riches of the philosophic thought of
St. Thomas Aquinas; of Richard J. Blackwell and the late Leon-
ard J. Eslick, model philosophers and teachers at Saint Louis
University; and of Lewis S. Ford of Old Dominion University
who has for all these years benevolently challenged me with
the thought of Alfred North Whitehead. I am grateful to Santa
Clara University for a Presidential Research Grant in the spring
of 2002 that gave the initial impetus to this essay, and to my
sister for helping to make the writing possible.

J.W. F.
AIMS

xii
Felt-01 7/27/07 2:53 PM Page 1

Chapter 1

The Beginning

1.1 THE BEGINNING IS EXPERIENCING

That is where we find ourselves and the


world, so there is no other place from which to start a philo-
sophic analysis. But I do not mean by “experiencing” what
has been fashionable since Descartes’ disastrous experiment
in mind-body dualism. I do not presuppose that experiencing
is purely mental. I accept it for what it purports to be, an ac-
tivity that relates me as a bodily subject to a surrounding ob-
jective world of which I am myself a part. The goal of a meta-
physical analysis of experience is to uncover the intelligible
richness of this relationship.
The natural first stage in forming such an analysis consists
in trying to notice the most philosophically significant aspects
of that act of experiencing. That is an exercise in phenomeno-
logical description. Such a description can profit from some of
the more recent advances in science and in philosophic aware-
ness, particularly the twentieth century’s attention to dynamic
activity or process.
The second stage consists in attempting to make experi-
ence, so described, intelligible in terms of a coherent framework

1
Felt-01 7/27/07 2:53 PM Page 2

of philosophic concepts. A genuine metaphysical account of


experience adds the dimension of intelligibility and thereby en-
riches that same experience. Compare it to astronomers’ un-
derstanding of a star-filled desert night. We can all gaze at the
same points of light, but astronomers see them from the per-
spective of a coherent theoretical understanding that enriches
their experience by giving it deeper intelligible meaning. And
indeed, it seems safe to say that astronomers’ chief goal is not
the hope of ultimately building better air conditioners but the
sheer satisfaction of better understanding the cosmos in which
we all live. In somewhat the same way philosophers aim to
reach a more satisfying intellectual grasp of our experienced
world.1 Now, multifarious experience, like any multiplicity,
can be satisfactorily understood only in terms of some single,
underlying pattern discovered within it. The metaphysician is
in search of such a pattern.
The third and final stage of the philosophic excursion we
are about to undertake will be to return once more to experi-
ence itself and notice whether, or to what extent, the proposed
philosophic framework illuminates and enriches that experi-
ence. In particular, we shall in the end note the relevance of
the system to several classic philosophic problems, such as the
grounds for an ethics and an aesthetics, the existence and na-
ture of human freedom, whether there exists a unique entity
that fits at least some of the notions historically attributed to
God, and what might be the possibilities for individual human
destiny.

1.2 HUMAN EXPERIENCING REVEALS THE STRUCTURE


OF NATURAL ACTIVITY
AIMS

Natural activity is the ongoing process of becoming in the


world. In attempting to uncover the intelligible structure of
human experiencing I am deliberately assuming what at first

2
Felt-01 7/27/07 2:53 PM Page 3

may sound outlandish, namely, that the basic structure of


human experience reflects the most fundamental structure of all
natural activity. This assumption is not new. Henri Bergson, for
instance, wrote: “The matter and life which fill the world are
equally within us; the forces which work in all things we feel
within ourselves; whatever may be the inner essence of what is
and what is done, we are of that essence.”2 Alfred North White-
head echoes this, less lyrically but just as deliberately: “In de-
scribing the capacities, realized or unrealized, of an actual occa-
sion [Whitehead’s term for an ontological unit of experiencing],
we have, with Locke, tacitly taken human experience as an
example upon which to found the generalized description re-
quired for metaphysics. But when we turn to the lower organ-
isms we have first to determine which among such capacities
fade from realization into irrelevance, that is to say, by compari-
son with human experience which is our standard.”3
That immediate experience should reveal the structure of
cosmic becoming is, after all, only to be expected unless we are
to suppose that we human beings are extrinsic to the evolu-
tionary universe, somehow pasted onto it rather than emerging
from it. Today we are increasingly aware that, despite the gen-
eral trend in the cosmos toward an increase of disorder on the
large scale, there is nevertheless also a counterthrust toward
the order required by life, sentience, and intelligence. Human
consciousness is the present peak of this cosmic evolution to-
ward finer activities, and so it is reasonable to think that this
same consciousness, in its ability to reflect upon itself, should
discover within itself the basic structure of cosmic process gen-
erally. Human consciousness is a privileged perspective from
which to view the world, so that metaphysical reflection upon
experience reveals something about the world as much as about
ourselves.4
This supposition fits the presumption of a certain version
of realism about sensation that pervades the following discus-
sion. By that I mean the well-founded presumption that in and

The Beginning — 3
Felt-01 7/27/07 2:53 PM Page 4

through our experiencing we encounter an objective, extramen-


tal world of which we are a part. I shall claim that the world
gives itself to us in the act of sense perception. If that is the
case, then metaphysical reflection upon our experience is not
a purely subjective, psychological exercise but also a reflec-
tion of the given world.
Unfortunately such a theory of perception has been mainly
out of style for three and a half centuries. Because of a series
of philosophic mistakes, the dominant epistemological view-
point has been a kind of deformed idealism that is fairly called
representational. Let me briefly sketch how it goes, so as to
set it into clear contrast with the view that I shall be holding
in the rest of this essay.

1.3 THE REPRESENTATIONAL THEORY OF PERCEPTION

From our earliest childhood we took for granted, I think, that


our sensations put us in touch with a world around us full of
rocks and trees, birds and people. Only later in life did we run
into philosophic arguments that claimed to show that in sense
perceiving we don’t directly encounter objects in an external
world at all but rather sensations in our own minds that we
then, by inference, interpret as representing the extramental
objects that presumably provoked the sensations.
The arguments seemed airtight. The car that looked teal
green in sunlight looked gray under the lights of a parking lot.
The appearance of the car had undeniably changed, yet the
car itself presumably had not. It thus seemed to follow that
the appearance we observed was in our minds rather than
a physical reality in the world. Similar cases, involving any of
our other external senses, can be multiplied indefinitely. The
AIMS

conclusion seems to be that in sensing we are given only ap-


pearances in our mind, but that we take them to represent the
objects outside the mind, which we suppose provoked those

4
Felt-01 7/27/07 2:53 PM Page 5

appearances in us. Hence the distinction, almost standard in


philosophy ever since Descartes and Locke, between (mental)
appearance and (material) reality, with its inbuilt problem of
how the two realms, mind and matter, could possibly relate to
each other. It is not too much to say that philosophy in the
Western world has for 350 years struggled, mostly unsuccess-
fully, to get the perceiver out of his or her mind and into an
external world. For according to this accepted theory, our per-
ceiving finds us inside a mental world of appearances, and we
get to a physical world, if we do it at all, only by a secondhand
process of questionable inference.
But where does this theory, at first so plausible, go wrong?
For one thing it incorrectly assumes, explicitly or implicitly,
that in the act of perceiving we are given either external objects
as they are in themselves or else our own perceptions (vari-
ously called sense data, sensa, sense impressions, sensations,
or appearances). Now it is easy to rule out objects themselves
because what we experience in perception—the appearances—
varies even when we think that the objects themselves do not.
If, then, we must choose between mental appearances and ex-
ternal objects as the immediate objects of perceiving, we have
to pick the former. We have to conclude that in sensing we
are confronted only with appearances in our minds, not with
external objects.

1.4 RELATIONAL REALISM

But we don’t have to live with this theory. We don’t have to


think that we perceive either a mental representation of a
world or objects just as they are in themselves. We can adopt
a view of relational realism that affirms that in perceiving
we do encounter real extramental objects, yet not objects in
themselves but objects as they stand related to us in the act of
perceiving.5 In that way I reject the dichotomy that underlies

The Beginning — 5
Felt-01 7/27/07 2:53 PM Page 6

representationalism: that we perceive either things-in-themselves


or else sensations in the mind. Instead, I introduce, as it were
in between the two, yet a third alternative: relational things, or
things in relation to the perceiver.
In perceiving we do indeed sense real bodies in the world:
not bodies as they exist in themselves, however, but bodies
as they relate to us in the act of perceiving — that is, relational
bodies. The seen-car (the perceptually related car) was really
green in the sunlight because the sunlight itself made the car
visible to me as green. The same car was really gray under arti-
ficial light for a similar reason. Innumerable factors enter into
a single act of perception, and they all play a part in the rela-
tionality of the perceived object.
Besides rejecting the (mental) appearance versus (material)
reality dichotomy of representationalism, relational realism
depends upon accepting a richer theory of causality than is
recognized in representationalism. The latter theory is infected
with the isolationist view of causality of David Hume. Hume
decreed—by what William James would call a Machtspruch—
that every event must be just itself, bearing no internal connec-
tions to any other event. Consequently the events we call cause
and effect are quite distinct from each other, so that it is impos-
sible to argue from one to the other.
But that too is a mistake, just as is the false dichotomy of
appearance versus reality. One can, justifiably to experience,
accept the wisdom of Aristotle’s insight that the activity of
the cause is in its effect. Thus the car itself is acting on me,
through the light and the consequent immutation of my reti-
nas. I thus see the car in its acting on me rather than merely
a mental representation of the car.6
AIMS

1.5 RELATIONAL REALISM AND COSMIC PROCESS

Relational realism naturally invites assumption 1.2 above: that


conscious reflection on what is happening in our own sensing

6
Felt-01 7/27/07 2:53 PM Page 7

may reveal to us the anatomy of cosmic process in general, not


just of sensing. For if the true objects of sensing are not mental
appearances but the world as related to us in sensing, it makes
sense to suppose that sensing gives us an opening into the
workings of the cosmos. With that in mind, let us attempt a
more detailed description of the world as given to us in per-
ception and of the general structure of perceiving itself.

The Beginning — 7
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