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Basic Structures
for Engineers
and Architects
Basic Structures
for Engineers and
Architects

Philip Garrison
BSc, MBA, CEng, MICE, MIStructE, MIHT, ILTM
School of the Built Environment
Leeds Metropolitan University
© 2005 Philip Garrison

Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Editorial offices:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK
Tel: +44 (0)1865 776868
Blackwell Publishing Inc., 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA
Tel: +1 781 388 8250
Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd, 550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053,
Australia
Tel: +61 (0)3 8359 1011

The right of the Author to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechani-
cal, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

First published 2005 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Garrison, Philip, CEng.

Basic structures for engineers and architects / Philip Garrison.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-4051-2053-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Structural engineering. I. Title.

TA637.G37 2005
624.1--dc22
2004023324

ISBN-10 1-4051-2053-3
ISBN-13 978-14051-2053-1

A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library

Set in 9.5/12 pt Palatino

by Sparks, Oxford – www.sparks.co.uk
Printed and bound in India
by Replika Press Pvt. Ltd, Kundli

The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable
forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp processed using acid-
free and elementary chlorine-free practices. Furthermore, the publisher ensures that
the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation
standards.

For further information on Blackwell Publishing, visit our website:

www.thatconstructionsite.com
To Jenny B
 Contents

Introduction ix
Acknowledgements xv

1 What is structural engineering? 1

2 Learn the language: a simple explanation of terms used by

structural engineers 10

3 How do structures (and parts of structures) behave? 13

4 Force, mass and weight 29

5 Loading – dead or alive 36

6 Equilibrium – a balanced approach 43

7 More about forces: resultants and components 49

8 Moments 60

9 Reactions 70

10 Different types of support – and what’s a pin? 77

11 A few words about stability 86

12 Introduction to the analysis of pin-jointed frames 100

13 Method of resolution at joints 105

viii Contents

14 Method of sections 126

15 Graphical method 134

16 Shear force and bending moments 145

17 This thing called stress 175

18 Direct (and shear) stress 181

19 Bending stress 191

20 Combined bending and axial stress 214

21 Structural materials: concrete, steel, timber and masonry 229

22 More on materials 242

23 How far can I span? 249

24 Calculating those loads 258

Appendices 269
Index 277
 Introduction

When I was 16 I had a Saturday job as a shelf-stacker at a local supermar-

ket. One day, during a tea break, a co-worker asked me what I did the rest
of the week. I explained that I had just done O Levels and was going on to
do A Levels. I told him how many and in which subjects. He then asked
me about my career aspirations (not his exact words). I explained that I
wanted to become an engineer. His aghast response was: ‘What! With all
those qualifications?’
Engineers suffer from a lack of public perception of what their profes-
sion entails – many people think we spend our days in the suburbs, mend-
ing washing machines and televisions. Architects are more fortunate in
this respect – the public have a better grasp of their profession: ‘They de-
sign buildings, don’t they?’
Public perceptions aside, careers in both civil engineering and archi-
tecture can be extremely rewarding. There are few other careers where
individuals can be truly creative, often on a massive scale. The civil engi-
neering profession offers a variety of working environments and a large
number of specialisms within civil engineering. Civil engineers have op-
portunities to work all over the world, on projects large and small, and
could come into contact with a wide variety of people, from the lowest
worker on a construction site to government officials and heads of state.
At the start of the 21st century there is a huge demand for civil engi-
neers and many young people (and some not so young!) are realising that
this is a profession well worth entering.
Traditionally, students embarking on university courses in civil engi-
neering would have A Levels in subjects such as mathematics, physics and
chemistry. However, for a variety of reasons, many of today’s potential
students have A Levels (or similar) in non-numerate and non-scientific
subjects. Moreover, a sizeable number of ‘mature’ people are entering the
profession following a first career in something completely different. As
a university admissions tutor, I speak to such people every day. It is pos-
x Introduction

sible, depending on the specialism eventually chosen, to enjoy a successful

career in civil engineering without an in-depth mathematical knowledge.
However, it is extremely difficult to obtain a degree or HND in civil engi-
neering without some mathematical proficiency.
Turning to architects – these are creative people! Every building they
design has a structure, without which the building would not stand up.
Architects, like civil engineers, have to understand the mechanisms which
lead to successful structures.
This book is about Structures. Structures is a subject studied as part of
all civil engineering degree, HND and OND courses, as well as architec-
ture degree courses, and also on some degree courses in related subjects
(e.g. quantity surveying, building surveying, construction management
and architecture).

The purpose of this book

I have taught Structures to undergraduate civil engineers and architects
for the past 12 years. During that time I have noticed that many students
find the basic concept of structures difficult to grasp and apply.
This book aims to do the following:

• to explain structural concepts clearly, using analogies and examples to

illustrate the points;
• to express the mathematical aspects of the subject in a straightforward
manner that can be understood by mathematically weak students and
placed in context with the concepts involved;
• to maintain reader interest by incorporating into the text real-life ex-
amples and case histories to underline the relevance of the material
that the student is learning.
This book presumes no previous knowledge of structures on the part of
the reader. It does, however, presume that the reader has a good general
education and a mathematical ability up to at least GCSE standard.

The intended readership

This book is aimed at:

• National Certificate (ONC), National Diploma (OND), Higher Na-

tional Certificate (HNC), Higher National Diploma (HND) or first-
year degree (BSc, BEng or MEng) students on a civil engineering (or
similar) course, who will study a module called Structures, Structural
Mechanics, Mechanics or Structural Analysis;
• students on a BA degree course in Architecture.
The following will also find this book useful:

• students on courses in subjects related to civil engineering and archi-

tecture – e.g. Quantity Surveying, Building Surveying, Construction
 Introduction xi

Management or Architectural Technology – who have to do a Struc-

tures module as part of their studies;
• those studying Technology at GCE A Level, GNVQ or AVCE;
• people working in the construction industry in any capacity.
The following will find the book a useful revision tool:

• a second (or subsequent) year student on a Civil Engineering or Archi-

tecture degree;
• a professional in the civil engineering or building industry, and prac-
tising architects.

A word about computers

Computer packages are available for every specialism and structural engi-
neering is no exception. Certainly, some of the problems in this book could
be solved more quickly using computer software. However, I do not men-
tion specific computer packages in this book and where I mention comput-
ers at all, it is in general terms. There are two reasons for this.
(1) The purpose of this book is to acquaint the reader with the basic prin-
ciples of structures. Whereas a computer is a useful tool for solving
specific problems, it is no substitute for a thorough grounding in the
basics of the subject.
(2) Computer software is being improved and updated all the time. The
most popular and up-to-date computer package for structural engi-
neering as I write these words may be dated (at best) or obsolete (at
worst) by the time you read this. If you are interested in the latest soft-
ware, look at specialist computer magazines or articles and advertise-
ments in the civil and structural engineering and architecture press,
or if you are a student, consult your lecturers.
I have set my students assignments where they have to solve a structural
problem by hand then check their results by analysing the same problem
using appropriate computer software. If the answers obtained by the two
approaches differ, it is always instructive to find out whether the error is
in the student’s hand calculations (most frequently the case) or in the com-
puter analysis (occurs less frequently, but does happen sometimes when
the student has input incorrect or incomplete data – the old ‘rubbish in,
rubbish out’!).

The website
You will find worked solutions to some of the problems in this book at a web-
site maintained by the publishers: www.blackwellpublishing.com/garrison.
In addition, all readers can contact me via the website – your suggestions,
comments and criticisms are welcome.
xii Introduction

An overview of this book

If you are a student studying a module called Structures, Structural Me-
chanics or similar, the chapter headings in this book will tie in – more or
less – with the lecture topics presented by your lecturer or tutor. I suggest
you read each chapter of this book soon after the relevant lecture or class
to reinforce your knowledge and skills in the topic concerned. I advise all
readers to have a pen and paper beside them to jot down notes as they go
through the book – particularly the numerical examples. In my experience,
this greatly aids understanding.

• Chapters 1–5 introduce the fundamental concepts, terms and language

of structures.
• Chapters 6–10 build on the basic concepts and show how they can be
used, mathematically, to solve simple structural problems.
• Chapter 11 deals with the very important concept of stability and
discusses how to ensure structures are stable – and recognise when
they’re not!
• Chapters 12–15 deal with the analysis of pin-jointed frames, a topic
that some students find difficult.
• Chapter 16 covers shear force and bending moment diagrams – an ex-
tremely important topic.
• Chapters 17–20 deal with stress in its various guises.
• Structural materials are dealt with more fully in other texts, but Chap-
ter 21 provides an introduction to this topic.
• Chapter 22 introduces structural design, which, again, is dealt with
more fully in other texts.
• Chapters 23 and 24 deal, respectively, with the conceptual design of
structures and the calculation of loads and will be of particular inter-
est to students of architecture.

How to use this book

It is not necessary for all readers to read this book from cover to cover.
However, the book has been designed to follow the subject matter in the
order usually adopted by teachers and lecturers teaching Structures to
students on degree and HND courses in Civil Engineering. If you are a
student on such a course, I suggest you read the book in stages in parallel
with your lectures.

• All readers should read Chapters 1–5 as these lay down the funda-
mentals of the subject.
• Civil engineering students should read all chapters in the book, with
the possible exception of Chapters 14 and 15 if these topics are not
taught on your course.
• Students of architecture should concentrate on Chapters 1–9 and 21–
24, but read certain other chapters as directed by your tutor.
 Introduction xiii

Let’s keep it simple

James Dyson, the inventor of the dual cyclone vacuum cleaner that bears
his name, discusses one of its design features – the transparent plastic
cylinder within which the rubbish collects – in his autobiography:
‘A journalist who came to interview me once asked, “The area where
the dirt collects is transparent, thus parading all our detritus on the
outside, and turning the classic design inside out. Is this some post-
modernist nod to the architectural style pioneered by Richard Rodgers
at the Pompidou Centre, where the air-conditioning and escalators, the
very guts, are made into a self-referential design feature?”
‘“No,” I replied. “It’s so you can see when it’s full.”’
(From Against the Odds by James Dyson and Giles Coren (Texere
2001))
It is my aim to keep this book as simple, straightforward and jargon-
free as possible.

Worked solutions to the tutorial questions can be found at:

www.blackwellpublishing.com/garrison
 Acknowledgements

This is my first book. My thanks go to the following people for helping to

ensure it won’t be my last:

• Katie Bartozzi, Amanda Brown, Andrew Brown, Fred Garrison, Jean

Garrison, Simon Garrison, Pete Gordon, Paul Hirst and Phil Yates.
• Richard Hare for his assistance with some of the diagrams.
• Julia Burden and Emma Moss of Blackwell Publishing.
• My wife Jenny – my greatest fan and my fondest critic.
• Nick Crinson, whose encyclopaedic knowledge of the London Under-
ground inspired the analogy given in Chapter 7.
• Most importantly, Jim Adams, who was the inspiration for the whole
project.
And, to parrot that hackneyed catch-all used by all authors at this point,
my thanks go to all the others I haven’t mentioned, without whom, etc. etc.
– they know who they are!
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