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LONDON MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY LECTURE NOTE SERIES

Managing Editor: Professor M. Reid, Mathematics Institute,

University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom

The titles below are available from booksellers, or from Cambridge University Press at
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312 Foundations of computational mathematics, Minneapolis 2002, F. CUCKER et al. (eds)

313 Transcendental aspects of algebraic cycles, S. MÜLLER-STACH & C. PETERS (eds)
314 Spectral generalizations of line graphs, D. CVETKOVIĆ, P. ROWLINSON & S. SIMIĆ
315 Structured ring spectra, A. BAKER & B. RICHTER (eds)
316 Linear logic in computer science, T. EHRHARD, P. RUET, J.-Y. GIRARD & P. SCOTT (eds)
317 Advances in elliptic curve cryptography, I.F. BLAKE, G. SEROUSSI & N.P. SMART (eds)
318 Perturbation of the boundary in boundary-value problems of partial differential equations, D. HENRY
319 Double affine Hecke algebras, I. CHEREDNIK
320 L-functions and Galois representations, D. BURNS, K. BUZZARD & J. NEKOVÁŘ (eds)
321 Surveys in modern mathematics, V. PRASOLOV & Y. ILYASHENKO (eds)
322 Recent perspectives in random matrix theory and number theory, F. MEZZADRI & N.C. SNAITH (eds)
323 Poisson geometry, deformation quantisation and group representations, S. GUTT et al (eds)
324 Singularities and computer algebra, C. LOSSEN & G. PFISTER (eds)
325 Lectures on the Ricci flow, P. TOPPING
326 Modular representations of finite groups of Lie type, J.E. HUMPHREYS
327 Surveys in combinatorics 2005, B.S. WEBB (ed)
328 Fundamentals of hyperbolic manifolds, R. CANARY, D. EPSTEIN & A. MARDEN (eds)
329 Spaces of Kleinian groups, Y. MINSKY, M. SAKUMA & C. SERIES (eds)
330 Noncommutative localization in algebra and topology, A. RANICKI (ed)
331 Foundations of computational mathematics, Santander 2005, L. M PARDO, A. PINKUS, E. SÜLI &
M.J. TODD (eds)
332 Handbook of tilting theory, L. ANGELERI HÜGEL, D. HAPPEL & H. KRAUSE (eds)
333 Synthetic differential geometry (2nd Edition), A. KOCK
334 The Navier–Stokes equations, N. RILEY & P. DRAZIN
335 Lectures on the combinatorics of free probability, A. NICA & R. SPEICHER
336 Integral closure of ideals, rings, and modules, I. SWANSON & C. HUNEKE
337 Methods in Banach space theory, J.M.F. CASTILLO & W.B. JOHNSON (eds)
338 Surveys in geometry and number theory, N. YOUNG (ed)
339 Groups St Andrews 2005 I, C.M. CAMPBELL, M.R. QUICK, E.F. ROBERTSON & G.C. SMITH (eds)
340 Groups St Andrews 2005 II, C.M. CAMPBELL, M.R. QUICK, E.F. ROBERTSON & G.C. SMITH (eds)
341 Ranks of elliptic curves and random matrix theory, J.B. CONREY, D.W. FARMER, F. MEZZADRI &
N.C. SNAITH (eds)
342 Elliptic cohomology, H.R. MILLER & D.C. RAVENEL (eds)
343 Algebraic cycles and motives I, J. NAGEL & C. PETERS (eds)
344 Algebraic cycles and motives II, J. NAGEL & C. PETERS (eds)
345 Algebraic and analytic geometry, A. NEEMAN
346 Surveys in combinatorics, A. HILTON & J. TALBOT (eds)
347 Surveys in contemporary mathematics, N. YOUNG & Y. CHOI (eds)
348 Transcendental dynamics and complex analysis, P.J. RIPPON & G.M. STALLARD (eds)
349 Model theory with applications to algebra and analysis I, Z. CHATZIDAKIS, D. MACPHERSON, A. PILLAY
& A. WILKIE (eds)
350 Model theory with applications to algebra and analysis II, Z. CHATZIDAKIS, D. MACPHERSON,
A. PILLAY & A. WILKIE (eds)
351 Finite von Neumann algebras and masas, A.M. SINCLAIR & R.R. SMITH
352 Number theory and polynomials, J. MCKEE & C. SMYTH (eds)
353 Trends in stochastic analysis, J. BLATH, P. MÖRTERS & M. SCHEUTZOW (eds)
354 Groups and analysis, K. TENT (ed)
355 Non-equilibrium statistical mechanics and turbulence, J. CARDY, G. FALKOVICH & K. GAWEDZKI
356 Elliptic curves and big Galois representations, D. DELBOURGO
357 Algebraic theory of differential equations, M.A. H. MACCALLUM & A.V. MIKHAILOV (eds)
358 Geometric and cohomological methods in group theory, M.R. BRIDSON, P.H. KROPHOLLER &
I.J. LEARY (eds)
359 Moduli spaces and vector bundles, L. BRAMBILA-PAZ, S.B. BRADLOW, O. GARCÍA-PRADA &
S. RAMANAN (eds)
360 Zariski geometries, B. ZILBER
361 Words: notes on verbal width in groups, D. SEGAL
362 Differential tensor algebras and their module categories, R. BAUTISTA, L. SALMERÓN & R. ZUAZUA
363 Foundations of computational mathematics, Hong Kong 2008, F. CUCKER, A. PINKUS & M.J. TODD (eds)
364 Partial differential equations and fluid mechanics, J.C. ROBINSON & J.L. RODRIGO (eds)
365 Surveys in combinatorics 2009, S. HUCZYNSKA, J.D. MITCHELL & C.M. RONEY-DOUGAL (eds)
366 Highly oscillatory problems, B. ENGQUIST, A. FOKAS, E. HAIRER & A. ISERLES (eds)
367 Random matrices: high dimensional phenomena, G. BLOWER
368 Geometry of Riemann surfaces, F.P. GARDINER, G. GONZÁLEZ-DIEZ & C. KOUROUNIOTIS (eds)
369 Epidemics and rumours in complex networks, M. DRAIEF & L. MASSOULIÉ
370 Theory of p-adic distributions, S. ALBEVERIO, A.YU. KHRENNIKOV & V.M. SHELKOVICH
371 Conformal fractals, F. PRZYTYCKI & M. URBAŃSKI
372 Moonshine: the first quarter century and beyond, J. LEPOWSKY, J. MCKAY & M.P. TUITE (eds)
373 Smoothness, regularity and complete intersection, J. MAJADAS & A.G. RODICIO
374 Geometric analysis of hyperbolic differential equations: an introduction, S. ALINHAC
375 Triangulated categories, T. HOLM, P. JØRGENSEN & R. ROUQUIER (eds)
376 Permutation patterns, S. LINTON, N. RUŠKUC & V. VATTER (eds)
377 An introduction to Galois cohomology and its applications, G. BERHUY
378 Probability and mathematical genetics, N.H. BINGHAM & C. M. GOLDIE (eds)
379 Finite and algorithmic model theory, J. ESPARZA, C. MICHAUX & C. STEINHORN (eds)
380 Real and complex singularities, M. MANOEL, M.C. ROMERO FUSTER & C.T. C WALL (eds)
381 Symmetries and integrability of difference equations, D. LEVI, P. OLVER, Z. THOMOVA &
P. WINTERNITZ (eds)
382 Forcing with random variables and proof complexity, J. KRAJÍČEK
383 Motivic integration and its interactions with model theory and non-Archimedean geometry I, R. CLUCKERS,
J. NICAISE & J. SEBAG (eds)
384 Motivic integration and its interactions with model theory and non-Archimedean geometry II, R. CLUCKERS,
J. NICAISE & J. SEBAG (eds)
385 Entropy of hidden Markov processes and connections to dynamical systems, B. MARCUS, K. PETERSEN &
T. WEISSMAN (eds)
386 Independence-friendly logic, A.L. MANN, G. SANDU & M. SEVENSTER
387 Groups St Andrews 2009 in Bath I, C.M. CAMPBELL et al. (eds)
388 Groups St Andrews 2009 in Bath II, C.M. CAMPBELL et al. (eds)
389 Random fields on the sphere, D. MARINUCCI & G. PECCATI
390 Localization in periodic potentials, D.E. PELINOVSKY
391 Fusion systems in algebra and topology, M. ASCHBACHER, R. KESSAR & B. OLIVER
392 Surveys in combinatorics 2011, R. CHAPMAN (ed)
393 Non-abelian fundamental groups and Iwasawa theory, J. COATES et al. (eds)
394 Variational problems in differential geometry, R. BIELAWSKI, K. HOUSTON & M. SPEIGHT (eds)
395 How groups grow, A. MANN
396 Arithmetic differential operators over the p-adic integers, C.C. RALPH & S.R. SIMANCA
397 Hyperbolic geometry and applications in quantum chaos and cosmology, J. BOLTE & F. STEINER (eds)
398 Mathematical models in contact mechanics, M. SOFONEA & A. MATEI
399 Circuit double cover of graphs, C.-Q. ZHANG
400 Dense sphere packings: a blueprint for formal proofs, T. HALES
401 A double Hall algebra approach to affine quantum Schur–Weyl theory, B. DENG, J. DU & Q. FU
402 Mathematical aspects of fluid mechanics, J.C. ROBINSON, J. L. RODRIGO & W. SADOWSKI (eds)
403 Foundations of computational mathematics, Budapest 2011, F. CUCKER, T. KRICK, A. PINKUS &
A. SZANTO (eds)
404 Operator methods for boundary value problems, S. HASSI, H.S. V. DE SNOO & F.H. SZAFRANIEC (eds)
405 Torsors, étale homotopy and applications to rational points, A.N. SKOROBOGATOV (ed)
406 Appalachian set theory, J. CUMMINGS & E. SCHIMMERLING (eds)
407 The maximal subgroups of the low-dimensional finite classical groups, J.N. BRAY, D.F. HOLT &
C.M. RONEY-DOUGAL
408 Complexity science: the Warwick master’s course, R. BALL, V. KOLOKOLTSOV & R.S. MACKAY (eds)
409 Surveys in combinatorics 2013, S.R. BLACKBURN, S. GERKE & M. WILDON (eds)
410 Representation theory and harmonic analysis of wreath products of finite groups,
T. CECCHERINI-SILBERSTEIN, F. SCARABOTTI & F. TOLLI
411 Moduli spaces, L. BRAMBILA-PAZ, O. GARCÍA-PRADA, P. NEWSTEAD & R.P. THOMAS (eds)
412 Automorphisms and equivalence relations in topological dynamics, D.B. ELLIS & R. ELLIS
413 Optimal transportation, Y. OLLIVIER, H. PAJOT & C. VILLANI (eds)
414 Automorphic forms and Galois representations I, F. DIAMOND, P.L. KASSAEI & M. KIM (eds)
415 Automorphic forms and Galois representations II, F. DIAMOND, P.L. KASSAEI & M. KIM (eds)
416 Reversibility in dynamics and group theory, A.G. O’FARRELL & I. SHORT
417 Recent advances in algebraic geometry, C.D. HACON, M. MUSTAŢĂ & M. POPA (eds)
418 The Bloch–Kato conjecture for the Riemann zeta function, J. COATES, A. RAGHURAM, A. SAIKIA &
R. SUJATHA (eds)
419 The Cauchy problem for non-Lipschitz semi-linear parabolic partial differential equations, J.C. MEYER &
D.J. NEEDHAM
420 Arithmetic and geometry, L. DIEULEFAIT et al (eds)
421 O-minimality and Diophantine geometry, G.O. JONES & A.J. WILKIE (eds)
422 Groups St Andrews 2013, C.M. CAMPBELL et al (eds)
423 Inequalities for graph eigenvalues, Z. STANIĆ
424 Surveys in combinatorics 2015, A. CZUMAJ et al. (eds)
425 Geometry, topology and dynamics in negative curvature, C.S. ARAVINDA, F.T. FARRELL & J.-F. LAFONT
(eds)
426 Lectures on the theory of water waves, T. BRIDGES, M. GROVES & D. NICHOLLS (eds)
427 Recent advances in Hodge theory, M. KERR & G. PEARLSTEIN (eds)
428 Geometry in a Fréchet context, C.T.J. DODSON, G. GALANIS & E. VASSILIOU
429 Sheaves and functions modulo p, L. TAELMAN
430 Recent progress in the theory of the Euler and NavierStokes equations, J.C. ROBINSON, J.L. RODRIGO,
W. SADOWSKI & A. VIDAL-LÓPEZ (eds)
431 Harmonic and subharmonic function theory on the real hyperbolic ball, M. STOLL
432 Topics in graph automorphisms and reconstruction (2nd Edition), J. LAURI & R. SCAPELLATO
433 Regular and irregular holonomic D-modules, M. KASHIWARA & P. SCHAPIRA
434 Analytic semigroups and semilinear initial boundary value problems (2nd Edition), K. TAIRA
435 Graded rings and graded Grothendieck groups, R. HAZRAT
London Mathematical Society Lecture Note Series: 432

Topics in Graph Automorphisms

and Reconstruction

Second Edition

J O S E F L AU R I
University of Malta

R A F FA E L E S C A P E L L ATO
Politecnico di Milano
 University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781316610442

c Josef Lauri and Raffaele Scapellato 2016
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2016
Printed in the United Kingdom by Clays, St Ives plc
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Names: Lauri, Josef, 1955– | Scapellato, Raffaele, 1955–
Title: Topics in graph automorphisms and reconstruction /
Josef Lauri and Raffaele Scapellato.
Description: 2nd edition. | Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2016. |
Series: London Mathematical Society lecture note series; 432 |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016014849 | ISBN 9781316610442 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Graph theory. | Automorphisms. | Reconstruction (Graph theory)
Classification: LCC QA166.L39 2016 | DDC 511/.5–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016014849
ISBN 978-1-316-61044-2 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLs for external or third-party Internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 Lil
Mary Anne,
Christina, Beppe u Sandrina

A
Fiorella
London Mathematical Society Lecture Note Series: 432

Topics in Graph Automorphisms

and Reconstruction

J O S E F L AU R I
University of Malta

R A F FA E L E S C A P E L L ATO
Politecnico di Milano
 Contents

Preface to the Second Edition page xi

Preface to the First Edition xiii

1 Graphs and Groups: Preliminaries 1

1.1 Graphs and digraphs 1
1.2 Groups 3
1.3 Graphs and groups 7
1.4 Edge-automorphisms and line-graphs 10
1.5 A word on issues of computational complexity 13
1.6 Exercises 15
1.7 Notes and guide to references 17
2 Various Types of Graph Symmetry 18
2.1 Transitivity 18
2.2 Asymmetric graphs 25
2.3 Graph symmetries and the spectrum 29
2.4 Simple eigenvalues 31
2.5 Higher symmetry conditions 32
2.6 Exercises 35
2.7 Notes and guide to references 38
3 Cayley Graphs 39
3.1 Cayley colour graphs 39
3.2 Frucht’s and Bouwer’s Theorems 42
3.3 Cayley graphs and digraphs 44
3.4 The Doyle-Holt Graph 47
3.5 Non-Cayley vertex-transitive graphs 48
3.6 Coset graphs and Sabidussi’s Theorem 49
3.7 Double coset graphs and semisymmetric graphs 51

vii
viii Contents

3.8 Hamiltonicity 53
3.9 Characters of abelian groups and Cayley graphs 55
3.10 Growth rates 56
3.11 Exercises 58
3.12 Notes and guide to references 62
4 Orbital Graphs and Strongly Regular Graphs 64
4.1 Definitions and basic properties 64
4.2 Rank 3 groups 68
4.3 Strongly regular graphs 69
4.4 The Integrality Condition 70
4.5 Moore graphs 73
4.6 Exercises 75
4.7 Notes and guide to references 77
5 Graphical Regular Representations and Pseudosimilarity 79
5.1 Elementary results 79
5.2 Abelian groups 80
5.3 Pseudosimilarity 81
5.4 Some basic results 82
5.5 Several pairs of pseudosimilar vertices 84
5.6 Several pairs of pseudosimilar edges 85
5.7 Large sets of mutually pseudosimilar vertices 86
5.8 Exercises 88
5.9 Notes and guide to references 91
6 Products of Graphs 92
6.1 General products of graphs 93
6.2 Direct product 95
6.3 Cartesian product 97
6.4 More products 99
6.5 Stability and two-fold automorphisms 102
6.6 Additional remarks on graph products 105
6.7 Exercises 105
6.8 Notes and guide to references 108
7 Special Classes of Vertex-Transitive Graphs and Digraphs 109
7.1 Generalised Petersen graphs 110
7.2 Kneser graphs and odd graphs 114
7.3 Metacirculant graphs 115
7.4 The quasi-Cayley graphs and digraphs 117
7.5 Generalised Cayley graphs 119
 Contents ix

7.6 Exercises 120

7.7 Notes and guide to references 122
8 The Reconstruction Conjectures 123
8.1 Definitions 124
8.2 Some basic results 126
8.3 Maximal planar graphs 132
8.4 Digraphs and degree-associated reconstruction 136
8.5 Exercises 138
8.6 Notes and guide to references 139
9 Reconstructing from Subdecks 140
9.1 The endvertex-deck 140
9.2 Reconstruction numbers 141
9.3 The characteristic polynomial deck 144
9.4 Exercises 147
9.5 Notes and guide to references 147
10 Counting Arguments in Vertex-Reconstruction 149
10.1 Kocay’s Lemma 149
10.2 Counting spanning subgraphs 151
10.3 The characteristic and the chromatic polynomials 154
10.4 Exercises 155
10.5 Notes and guide to references 156
11 Counting Arguments in Edge-Reconstruction 157
11.1 Definitions and notation 157
11.2 Homomorphisms of structures 159
11.3 Lovász’ and Nash-Williams’ Theorems 163
11.4 Extensions 166
11.5 Exercises 168
11.6 Notes and guide to references 169
References 171
List of Notations 185
Index of Terms and Definitions 187
 Preface to the Second Edition

In this second edition of our book we have tried to maintain the same structure
as the first edition, namely a text which, although not providing an exhaustive
coverage of graph symmetries and reconstruction, provides a detailed cover-
age of some particular areas (generally motivated by our own research inter-
est), which is not a haphazard collection of results but which presents a clear
pathway through this thick forest. And our aim remains that of producing
a text which can relatively quickly guide the reader to the point of being
able to understand and carry out research in the topics which we
cover.
Among the additions in this edition we point out the use of the free com-
puter programs GAP, GRAPE and Sage to construct and investigate some well-
known graphs, including examples with properties like being semisymmetric,
a topic which was treated in the first edition but for which examples are not
easy to construct ‘by hand’. We have also updated some chapters with new
results, improved the presentation and proofs of others, and introduced short
treatments of topics such as character theory of abelian groups and their Cay-
ley graphs to emphasise the connection between graph theory and other areas
of mathematics.
We have corrected a number of errors which we found in the first edition,
and for this we would like to thank colleagues who have pointed out several of
them, particularly Bill Kocay, Virgilio Pannone and Alex Scott.
A special thanks goes to Russell Mizzi for help with overhauling Chapter
6, where we also introduce the new idea of two-fold isomorphisms, and to
Leonard Soicher and Matan Zif-Av for several helpful tips regarding the use of
GAP and GRAPE.
The second author would like to thank the Politecnico di Milano for giving
him the opportunity, by means of a sabbatical, to focus on the work needed

xi
xii Preface to the Second Edition

to complete the current edition of this book. He also thanks the University of
Malta for its kind hospitality during this sabbatical.
The authors will maintain a list of corrections and addenda at http://staff.um
.edu.mt/josef.lauri.

Josef Lauri
Raffaele Scapellato
 Preface to the First Edition

This book arose out of lectures given by the first author to Masters students at
the University of Malta and by the second author at the Università Cattolica di
Brescia.
This book is not intended to be an exhaustive coverage of graph theory.
There are many excellent texts that do this, some of which are mentioned in the
References. Rather, the intention is to provide the reader with a more in-depth
coverage of some particular areas of graph theory. The choice of these areas has
been largely governed by the research interests of the authors, and the flavour
of the topics covered is predominantly algebraic, with emphasis on symmetry
properties of graphs. Thus, standard topics such as the automorphism group of
a graph, Frucht’s Theorem, Cayley graphs and coset graphs, and orbital graphs
are presented early on because they provide the background for most of the
work presented in later chapters. Here, more specialised topics are tackled,
such as graphical regular representations, pseudosimilarity, graph products,
Hamiltonicity of Cayley graphs and special types of vertex-transitive graphs,
including a brief treatment of the difficult topic of classifying vertex-transitive
graphs. The last four chapters are devoted to the Reconstruction Problem, and
even here greater emphasis is given to those results that are of a more algebraic
character and involve the symmetry of graphs. A special chapter is devoted to
graph products. Such operations are often used to provide new examples from
existing ones but are seldom studied for their intrinsic value.
Throughout we have tried to present results and proofs, many of which are
not usually found in textbooks but have to be looked for in journal papers.
Also, we have tried, where possible, to give a treatment of some of these topics
that is different from the standard published material (for example, the chapter
on graph products and much of the work on reconstruction).

xiii
xiv Preface to the First Edition

Although the prerequisites for reading this book are quite modest (exposure
to a first course in graph theory and some discrete mathematics, and elemen-
tary knowledge about permutation groups and some linear algebra), it was our
intention when preparing this book that a student who has mastered its con-
tents would be in a good position to understand the current state of research in
most of the specialised topics covered, would be able to read with profit journal
papers in these areas, and would hopefully have his or her interest sufficiently
aroused to consider carrying out research in one of these areas of graph theory.
We would finally like to thank Professor Caroline Series for showing an
interest in this book when it was still in an early draft form and the staff
at Cambridge University Press for their help and encouragement, especially
Roger Astley, Senior Editor, Mathematical Sciences, and, for technical help
with LATEX, Alison Woollatt, who, with a short style file, solved problems that
would have baffled us for ages. Thanks are also due to Elise Oranges, who
edited this book thoroughly and pointed out several corrections.
The first author would also like to thank the Academic Work Resources Fund
Committee and the Computing Services Centre of the University of Malta,
the first for some financial help while writing this book and the second for
technical assistance. He also thanks his M.Sc. students at the University of
Malta, who worked through draft chapters of this book and whose comments
and criticism helped to improve the final product.

Josef Lauri
Raffaele Scapellato
 1
Graphs and Groups: Preliminaries

1.1 Graphs and digraphs

In these chapters a graph G = (V(G), E(G)) will consist of two disjoint sets:
a nonempty set V = V(G) whose elements will be called vertices and a set
E = E(G) whose elements, called edges, will be unordered pairs of distinct
elements of V. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, the set of vertices will always
be finite. An edge, {u, v}, u, v ∈ V, is also denoted by uv. Sometimes E is
allowed to be a multiset, that is, the same edge can be repeated more than once
in E. Such edges are called multiple edges. Also, edges uu consisting of a pair
of repeated vertices are sometimes allowed; such edges are called loops. But
unless otherwise stated, it will always be assumed that a graph does not have
loops or multiple edges. The complement of the graph G, denoted by G, has the
same vertex-set as G, but two distinct vertices are adjacent in the complement
if and only if they are not adjacent in G.
The degree of a vertex v, denoted by deg(v), is the number of edges in E(G)
to which v belongs. A vertex of degree k is sometimes said to be a k-vertex.
Two vertices belonging to the same edge are said to be adjacent, while a vertex
and an edge to which it belongs are said to be incident. A loop incident to a
vertex v contributes a value of 2 to deg(v). A graph is said to be regular if
all of its vertices have the same degree. A regular graph with degree equal to
3 is sometimes called cubic. The minimum and maximum degrees of G are
denoted by δ = δ(G) and  = (G), respectively.
In general, given any two sets A, B, then A−B will denote their set-theoretical
difference, that is, the set consisting of all of the elements that are in A but not
in B. Also, a set containing k elements is often said to be a k-set.
If S is a set of vertices of a graph G, then G−S will denote the graph obtained
by removing S from V(G) and removing from E(G) all edges incident to some
vertex in S. If F is a set of edges of G, then G − F will denote the graph whose

1
2 Graphs and Groups: Preliminaries

vertex-set is V(G) and whose edge-set is E(G) − F. If S = {u} and F = {e},

we shall, for short, denote G − S and G − F by G − u and G − e, respectively.
If S is a subset of the vertices of G, then G[S] will denote the subgraph of G
induced by S, that is, the subgraph consisting of the vertices in S and all of the
edges joining pairs of vertices from S.
An important modification of the foregoing definition of a graph gives what
is called a directed graph, or digraph for short. In a digraph D = (V(D), A(D))
the set A = A(D) consists of ordered pairs of vertices from V = V(D) and its
elements are called arcs. Again, an arc (u, v) is sometimes denoted by uv when
it is clear from the context whether we are referring to an arc or an edge. The
arc uv is said to be incident to v and incident from u; the vertex u is said to be
adjacent to v whereas v is adjacent from u. The number of arcs incident from a
vertex v is called its out-degree, denoted by degout (v), while the number of arcs
incident to v is called its in-degree and is denoted by degin (v). A digraph is said
to be regular if all of its vertices have the same out-degree or, equivalently, the
same in-degree. Sometimes, when we need to emphasise the fact that a graph
is not directed, we say that it is undirected.
The number of vertices of a graph G or digraph D is called its order and is
generally denoted by n = n(G) or n = n(D), while the number of edges or
arcs is called its size and is denoted by m = m(G) or m = m(D).
A sequence of distinct vertices of a graph, v1 , v2 , . . . , vk+1 , and edges e1 , e2 ,
. . . , ek such that each edge ei = vi vi+1 is called a path. If we allow v1 and
vk+1 , and only those, to be the same vertex, then we get what is called a
cycle.
The length of a path or a cycle in G is the number of edges in the path or
cycle. A path of length k is denoted by Pk+1 while a cycle of length k is denoted
by Ck . The distance between two vertices u, v in a connected graph G, denoted
by d(u, v), is the length of the shortest path joining u and v. The diameter of G
is the maximum value attained by d(u, v) as u, v run over V(G), and the girth
is the length of the shortest cycle.
In these definitions, if we are dealing with a digraph and the ei = vi vi+1
are arcs, then the path or cycle is called a directed path or directed cycle,
respectively.
Given a digraph D, the underlying graph of D is the graph obtained from
D by considering each pair in A(D) to be an unordered pair. Given a graph G,
←→
the digraph G is obtained from G by replacing each edge in E(G) by a pair
of oppositely directed arcs. This way, a graph can always be seen as a special
case of a digraph.
We adopt the usual convention of representing graphs and digraphs by draw-
ings in which each vertex is shown by a dot, each edge by a curve joining the
 1.2 Groups 3

corresponding pair of dots and each arc (u, v) by a curve with an arrowhead
pointing in the direction from u to v.
A number of definitions on graphs and digraphs will be given as they are
required. However, several standard graph theoretic terms will be used but not
defined in these chapters; these can be found in any of the references [257] or
[259].

1.2 Groups
A permutation group will be a pair (, Y) where Y is a finite set and  is a
subgroup of the symmetric group SY , that is, the group of all permutations of
Y. The stabiliser of an element y ∈ Y under the action of  is denoted by y
while the orbit of y is denoted by (y). The Orbit-Stabiliser Theorem states
that, for any element y ∈ Y,
|| = |(y)| · |y |.
If the elements of Y are all in one orbit, then (, Y) is said to be a transitive
permutation group and  is said to act transitively on Y. The permutation group
 is said to act regularly on Y if it acts transitively and the stabiliser of any
element of Y is trivial. By the Orbit-Stabiliser Theorem, this is equivalent to
saying that  acts transitively on Y and || = |Y|. Also,  acts regularly on Y
is equivalent to saying that, for any y1 , y2 ∈ Y, there exists exactly one α ∈ 
such that α(y1 ) = y2 .
One important regular action of a permutation group arises as follows. Let
 be any group, let Y =  and, for any α ∈ , let λα be the permutation
of Y defined by λα (β) = αβ. Let L() be the set of all permutations λα for
all α ∈ . Then (L(), Y) defines a permutation group acting regularly on Y.
This is called the left regular representation of the group  on itself. One can
similarly consider the right regular representation of the group  on itself, and
this is denoted by (R(), Y).
The following is an important generalisation of the previous definitions. If 
is a group and H ≤ , let Y = /H be the set of left cosets of H in . For any
α ∈ , let λH H
α be a permutation on Y defined by λα (βH) = αβH. Let L ()
H
H H
be the set of all λα for all α ∈ . Then (L (), Y) defines a permutation
group that reduces to the left regular representation of  if H = {1}.
Two permutation groups (1 , Y1 ), (2 , Y2 ) are said to be equivalent, denoted
by (1 , Y1 ) ≡ (2 , Y2 ), if there exists a bijective isomorphism φ : 1 → 2
and a bijection f : Y1 → Y2 such that, for all y ∈ Y1 and for all α ∈ 1 ,
f (α(x)) = φ(α)(f (x)).
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