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Classical Mechanics
Second Edition

Jupiter
orbit

Earth
orbit

Sun

Initial
spacecraft
orbit

Final
spacecraft
orbit

Outer
planet
orbit

Tai L. Chow
Classical Mechanics
Second Edition
Classical Mechanics
Second Edition

Tai L. Chow

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
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 To
Robert Youngme
and
David Lori
Contents
Preface.............................................................................................................................................. xv
Author.............................................................................................................................................xvii

Chapter 1 Kinematics: Describing the Motion..............................................................................1

1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Space, Time, and Coordinate Systems...............................................................1
1.3 Change of Coordinate System (Transformation of Components of a
Vector)......................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Displacement Vector...........................................................................................8
1.5 Speed and Velocity............................................................................................. 8
1.6 Acceleration...................................................................................................... 10
1.6.1 Tangential and Normal Acceleration.................................................. 11
1.7 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates.............................................. 14
1.7.1 Plane Polar Coordinates (r, θ)............................................................. 14
1.7.2 Cylindrical Coordinates (ρ, ϕ, z)......................................................... 15

1.7.3 Spherical Coordinates (r , θ, ϕ)........................................................... 16
1.8 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration.................................................... 18
1.9 Infinitesimal Rotations and the Angular Velocity Vector................................ 19

Chapter 2 Newtonian Mechanics.................................................................................................25

2.1 The First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)........................................................25
2.1.1 Inertial Frames of Reference...............................................................26
2.2 The Second Law of Motion; the Equations of Motion..................................... 27
2.2.1 The Concept of Force..........................................................................28
2.3 The Third Law of Motion................................................................................. 32
2.3.1 The Concept of Mass........................................................................... 32
2.4 Galilean Transformations and Galilean Invariance.........................................34
2.5 Newton’s Laws of Rotational Motion............................................................... 36
2.6 Work, Energy, and Conservation Laws............................................................ 37
2.6.1 Work and Energy................................................................................. 38
2.6.2 Conservative Force and Potential Energy........................................... 39
2.6.3 Conservation of Energy.......................................................................40
2.6.4 Conservation of Momentum................................................................ 42
2.6.5 Conservation of Angular Momentum................................................. 42
2.7 Systems of Particles..........................................................................................46
2.7.1 Center of Mass....................................................................................46
2.7.2 Motion of CM...................................................................................... 48
2.7.3 Conservation Theorems...................................................................... 49
References................................................................................................................... 56

Chapter 3 Integration of Newton’s Equation of Motion............................................................... 57

3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 57
3.2 Motion Under Constant Force.......................................................................... 58

vii
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
viii Contents

3.3 Force Is a Function of Time............................................................................. 63

3.3.1 Impulsive Force and Green’s Function Method..................................66
3.4 Force Is a Function of Velocity........................................................................ 67
3.4.1 Motion in a Uniform Magnetic Field.................................................. 71
3.4.2 Motion in Nearly Uniform Magnetic Field......................................... 73
3.5 Force Is a Function of Position......................................................................... 74
3.5.1 Bounded and Unbounded Motion....................................................... 75
3.5.2 Stable and Unstable Equilibrium........................................................ 76
3.5.3 Critical and Neutral Equilibrium........................................................ 78
3.6 Time-Varying Mass System (Rocket System).................................................. 79

Chapter 4 Lagrangian Formulation of Mechanics: Descriptions of Motion in

Configuration Space.................................................................................................... 85
4.1 Generalized Coordinates and Constraints........................................................ 85
4.1.1 Generalized Coordinates..................................................................... 85
4.1.2 Degrees of Freedom............................................................................ 85
4.1.3 Configuration Space............................................................................ 86
4.1.4 Constraints.......................................................................................... 86
4.1.4.1 Holonomic and Nonholonomic Constraints........................ 86
4.1.4.2 Scleronomic and Rheonomic Constraints........................... 88
4.2 Kinetic Energy in Generalized Coordinates.................................................... 88
4.3 Generalized Momentum...................................................................................90
4.4 Lagrangian Equations of Motion...................................................................... 91
4.4.1 Hamilton’s Principle............................................................................ 91
4.4.2 Lagrange’s Equations of Motion from Hamilton’s Principle..............92
4.5 Nonuniqueness of the Lagrangian.................................................................. 102
4.6 Integrals of Motion and Conservation Laws.................................................. 104
4.6.1 Cyclic Coordinates and Conservation Theorems.............................. 104
4.6.2 Symmetries and Conservation Laws................................................. 106
4.6.2.1 Homogeneity of Time and Conservation of Energy.......... 106
4.6.2.2 Spatial Homogeneity and Momentum Conservation......... 107
4.6.2.3 Isotropy of Space and Angular Momentum
Conservation................................................................... 108
4.6.2.4 Noether’s Theorem............................................................ 110
4.7 Scale Invariance............................................................................................. 111
4.8 Nonconservative Systems and Generalized Potential.................................... 112
4.9 Charged Particle in Electromagnetic Field..................................................... 112
4.10 Forces of Constraint and Lagrange’s Multipliers........................................... 114
4.11 Lagrangian versus Newtonian Approach to Classical Mechanics................. 119
Reference................................................................................................................... 123

Chapter 5 Hamiltonian Formulation of Mechanics: Descriptions of Motion in Phase

Spaces................................................................................................................... 125
5.1 The Hamiltonian of a Dynamic System......................................................... 125
5.1.1 Phase Space....................................................................................... 126
5.2 Hamilton’s Equations of Motion.................................................................... 126
5.2.1 Hamilton’s Equations from Lagrange’s Equations............................ 126
5.2.2 Hamilton’s Equations from Hamilton’s Principle............................. 128

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents ix

5.3 Integrals of Motion and Conservation Theorems........................................... 132

5.3.1 Energy Integrals................................................................................ 132
5.3.2 Cyclic Coordinates and Integrals of Motion..................................... 132
5.3.3 Conservation Theorems of Momentum and Angular
Momentum.................................................................................133
5.4 Canonical Transformations............................................................................ 135
5.5 Poisson Brackets............................................................................................. 140
5.5.1 Fundamental Properties of Poisson Brackets.................................... 141
5.5.2 Fundamental Poisson Brackets.......................................................... 141
5.5.3 Poisson Brackets and Integrals of Motion......................................... 141
5.5.4 Equations of Motion in Poisson Bracket Form................................. 144
5.5.5 Canonical Invariance of Poisson Brackets........................................ 144
5.6 Poisson Brackets and Quantum Mechanics................................................... 145
5.7 Phase Space and Liouville’s Theorem............................................................ 147
5.8 Time Reversal in Mechanics (Optional)......................................................... 150
5.9 Passage from Hamiltonian to Lagrangian...................................................... 151
References................................................................................................................. 154

Chapter 6 Motion Under a Central Force................................................................................... 155

6.1 Two-Body Problem and Reduced Mass......................................................... 155
6.2 General Properties of Central Force Motion.................................................. 157
6.3 Effective Potential and Classification of Orbits............................................. 159
6.4 General Solutions of Central Force Problem.................................................. 163
6.4.1 Energy Method.................................................................................. 163
6.4.2 Lagrangian Analysis......................................................................... 164
6.5 Inverse Square Law of Force.......................................................................... 167
6.6 Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion..................................................... 172
6.7 Applications of Central Force Motion............................................................ 174
6.7.1 Satellites and Spacecraft................................................................... 174
6.7.2 Communication Satellites................................................................. 178
6.7.3 Flyby Missions to Outer Planets....................................................... 179
6.8 Newton’s Law of Gravity from Kepler’s Laws............................................... 182
6.9 Stability of Circular Orbits (Optional)........................................................... 183
6.10 Apsides and Advance of Perihelion (Optional).............................................. 188
6.10.1 Advance of Perihelion and Inverse-Square Force............................. 189
6.10.2 Method of Perturbation Expansion................................................... 190
6.11 Laplace–Runge–Lenz Vector and the Kepler Orbit (Optional)..................... 192
References................................................................................................................. 198

Chapter 7 Harmonic Oscillator.................................................................................................. 199

7.1 Simple Harmonic Oscillator........................................................................... 199
7.1.1 Motion of Mass m on the End of a Spring........................................ 199
7.1.2 The Bob of Simple Pendulum Swinging through a Small Arc.........200
7.1.3 Solution of Equation of Motion of SHM........................................... 201
7.1.4 Kinetic, Potential, Total, and Average Energies of Harmonic
Oscillator........................................................................................... 203
7.2 Adiabatic Invariants and Quantum Condition...............................................206
7.3 Damped Harmonic Oscillator........................................................................209

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

x Contents

7.4 Phase Diagram for Damped Oscillator.......................................................... 218

7.5 Relaxation Time Phenomena.......................................................................... 220
7.6 Forced Oscillations without Damping............................................................ 220
7.6.1 Periodic Driving Force...................................................................... 221
7.6.2 Arbitrary Driving Forces.................................................................. 223
7.7 Forced Oscillations with Damping................................................................. 225
7.7.1 Resonance.......................................................................................... 227
7.7.2 Power Absorption.............................................................................. 231
7.8 Oscillator Under Arbitrary Periodic Force..................................................... 235
7.8.1 Fourier’s Series Solution................................................................... 236
7.9 Vibration Isolation.......................................................................................... 239
7.10 Parametric Excitation..................................................................................... 241

Chapter 8 Coupled Oscillations and Normal Coordinates........................................................ 249

8.1 Coupled Pendulum......................................................................................... 249
8.1.1 Normal Coordinates.......................................................................... 251
8.2 Coupled Oscillators and Normal Modes: General Analytic Approach............ 254
8.2.1 The Equation of Motion of a Coupled System.................................. 254
8.2.2 Normal Modes of Oscillation............................................................ 255
8.2.3 Orthogonality of Eigenvectors.......................................................... 257
8.2.4 Normal Coordinates.......................................................................... 259
8.3 Forced Oscillations of Coupled Oscillators...................................................264
8.4 Coupled Electric Circuits...............................................................................266

Chapter 9 Nonlinear Oscillations.............................................................................................. 273

9.1 Qualitative Analysis: Energy and Phase Diagrams........................................ 274
9.2 Elliptical Integrals and Nonlinear Oscillations..............................................280
9.3 Fourier Series Expansions.............................................................................. 283
9.3.1 Symmetrical Potential: V(x) = V(−x)..................................................284
9.3.2 Asymmetrical Potential: V(−x) = −V(x)............................................. 287
9.4 The Method of Perturbation........................................................................... 288
9.4.1 Bogoliuboff–Kryloff Procedure and Removal of Secular Terms..........292
9.5 Ritz Method.................................................................................................... 295
9.6 Method of Successive Approximation............................................................ 297
9.7 Multiple Solutions and Jumps......................................................................... 299
9.8 Chaotic Oscillations....................................................................................... 301
9.8.1 Some Helpful Tools for an Understanding of Chaos......................... 301
9.8.2 Conditions for Chaos.........................................................................306
9.8.3 Routes to Chaos.................................................................................307
9.8.4 Lyapunov Exponentials.....................................................................308
References................................................................................................................. 312

Chapter 10 Collisions and Scatterings......................................................................................... 313

10.1 Direct Impact of Two Particles....................................................................... 313
10.2 Scattering Cross Sections and Rutherford Scattering.................................... 318
10.2.1 Scattering Cross Sections.................................................................. 319
10.2.2 Rutherford’s α-Particle Scattering Experiment................................. 320
10.2.3 Cross Section Is Lorentz Invariant.................................................... 324

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents xi

10.3 Laboratory and Center-of-Mass Frames of Reference................................... 324

10.4 Nuclear Sizes.................................................................................................. 328
10.5 Small-Angle Scattering (Optional)................................................................. 329
References................................................................................................................. 336

Chapter 11 Motion in Non-Inertial Systems................................................................................ 337

11.1 Accelerated Translational Coordinate System............................................... 337
11.2 Dynamics in Rotating Coordinate System..................................................... 341
11.2.1 Centrifugal Force.............................................................................. 345
11.2.2 The Coriolis Force............................................................................. 349
11.2.2.1 Trade Winds and Circulation of Ocean Currents.............. 351
11.2.2.2 Weather Systems................................................................ 352
11.2.2.3 Hurricanes......................................................................... 354
11.2.2.4 Bathtub Vortex and Earth Rotation................................... 354
11.3 Motion of Particle Near the Surface of the Earth.......................................... 355
11.4 Foucault Pendulum......................................................................................... 361
11.5 Larmor’s Theorem..........................................................................................364
11.6 Classical Zeeman Effect................................................................................. 365
11.7 Principle of Equivalence................................................................................. 368
11.7.1 Principle of Equivalence and Gravitational Red Shift...................... 369

Chapter 12 Motion of Rigid Bodies............................................................................................. 377

12.1 Independent Coordinates of Rigid Body........................................................ 378
12.2 Eulerian Angles.............................................................................................. 379
12.3 Rate of Change of Vector............................................................................... 382
12.4 Rotational Kinetic Energy and Angular Momentum..................................... 384
12.5 Inertia Tensor.................................................................................................. 394
12.5.1 Diagonalization of a Symmetric Tensor............................................ 396
12.5.2 Moments and Products of Inertia...................................................... 397
12.5.3 Parallel-Axis Theorem...................................................................... 398
12.5.4 Moments of Inertia about an Arbitrary Axis.................................... 401
12.5.5 Principal Axes of Inertia...................................................................403
12.6 Euler’s Equations of Motion...........................................................................407
12.7 Motion of a Torque-Free Symmetrical Top....................................................409
12.8 Motion of Heavy Symmetrical Top with One Point Fixed............................. 414
12.8.1 Precession without Nutation.............................................................. 417
12.8.2 Precession with Nutation................................................................... 419
12.9 Stability of Rotational Motion........................................................................ 420
References................................................................................................................. 425

Chapter 13 Theory of Special Relativity..................................................................................... 427

13.1 Historical Origin of Special Theory of Relativity.......................................... 427
13.2 Michelson–Morley Experiment...................................................................... 430
13.3 Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity..................................................... 433
13.3.1 Time Is Not Absolute........................................................................ 434
13.4 Lorentz Transformations................................................................................ 434
13.4.1 Relativity of Simultaneity, Causality................................................. 437
13.4.2 Time Dilation, Relativity of Co-Locality.......................................... 438

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

xii Contents

13.4.3 Length Contraction........................................................................... 439

13.4.4 Visual Apparent Shape of Rapidly Moving Object........................... 441
13.4.5 Relativistic Velocity Addition........................................................... 441
13.5 Doppler Effect................................................................................................ 445
13.6 Relativistic Space–Time (Minkowski Space).................................................446
13.6.1 Four-Velocity and Four-Acceleration................................................449
13.6.2 Four-Energy and Four-Momentum Vectors...................................... 450
13.6.3 Particles of Zero Rest Mass............................................................... 452
13.7 Equivalence of Mass and Energy................................................................... 453
13.8 Conservation Laws of Energy and Momentum.............................................. 459
13.9 Generalization of Newton’s Equation of Motion............................................ 459
13.9.1 Force Transformation........................................................................ 461
13.10 Relativistic Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Functions...................................... 463
13.11 Relativistic Kinematics of Collisions............................................................. 467
13.12 Collision Threshold Energies......................................................................... 470
References................................................................................................................. 474

Chapter 14 Newtonian Gravity and Newtonian Cosmology....................................................... 475

14.1 Newton’s Law of Gravity................................................................................ 475
14.2 Gravitational Field and Gravitational Potential.............................................. 477
14.3 Gravitational Field Equations: Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations................ 479
14.4 Gravitational Field and Potential of Extended Body......................................480
14.5 Tides............................................................................................................... 481
14.6 General Theory of Relativity: Relativistic Theory of Gravitation................. 487
14.6.1 Gravitational Shift of Spectral Lines (Gravitational Red Shift)............488
14.6.2 Bending of Light Beam..................................................................... 489
14.7 Introduction to Cosmology............................................................................. 491
14.8 Brief History of Cosmological Ideas.............................................................. 492
14.8.1 Newton and Infinite Universe........................................................... 493
14.8.2 Newton’s Law of Gravity Predicts Nonstationary Universe............. 493
14.8.3 An Infinite Steady Universe Is an Empty Universe.......................... 495
14.8.4 Olbers’ Paradox................................................................................. 496
14.9 Discovery of Expansion of the Universe, Hubble’s Law................................ 497
14.10 Big Bang......................................................................................................... 499
14.10.1 Age of the Universe........................................................................... 499
14.11 Formulating Dynamical Models of the Universe........................................... 499
14.12 Cosmological Red Shift and Hubble Constant H........................................... 503
14.13 Critical Mass Density and Future of the Universe.........................................504
14.13.1 Density Parameter Ω......................................................................... 505
14.13.2 Deceleration Parameter q0................................................................. 505
14.13.3 An Accelerating Universe?................................................................ 507
14.14 Microwave Background Radiation................................................................. 507
14.15 Dark Matter.................................................................................................... 511
Reference................................................................................................................... 514

Chapter 15 Hamilton–Jacobi Theory of Dynamics..................................................................... 515

15.1 Canonical Transformation and H-J Equation................................................. 515
15.2 Action and Angle Variables............................................................................ 522

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents xiii

15.3 Infinitesimal Canonical Transformations and Time Development

Operator..................................................................................................... 527
15.4 H-J Theory and Wave Mechanics.................................................................. 530
Reference................................................................................................................... 533

Chapter 16 Introduction to Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formulations for Continuous

Systems and Classical Fields..................................................................................... 535
16.1 Vibration of Loaded String............................................................................. 535
16.2 Vibrating Strings and the Wave Equation...................................................... 541
16.2.1 Wave Equation................................................................................... 541
16.2.2 Separation of Variables..................................................................... 543
16.2.3 Wave Number and Phase Velocity.................................................... 543
16.2.4 Group Velocity and Wave Packets....................................................544
16.3 Continuous Systems and Classical Fields....................................................... 547
16.3.1 Lagrangian Formulation.................................................................... 547
16.3.2 Hamiltonian Formulation.................................................................. 550
16.3.3 Conservation Laws............................................................................ 552
16.4 Scalar and Vector of Fields............................................................................. 553
16.4.1 Scalar Fields...................................................................................... 553
16.4.2 Vector Fields...................................................................................... 554
Appendix 1: Vector Analysis and Ordinary Differential Equations........................................ 557
Appendix 2: D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations............................................. 587
Appendix 3: Derivation of Hamilton’s Principle from D’Alembert’s Principle...................... 595
Appendix 4: Noether’s Theorem.................................................................................................. 599
Appendix 5: Conic Sections, Ellipse, Parabola, and Hyperbola..............................................605

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Preface
This book presents a reasonably complete account of the theoretical mechanics of particles and
systems for physics students at the advanced undergraduate level. It is evolved from a set of lecture
notes for a course on the subject, which I have taught at California State University, Stanislaus, for
many years. We presume that the student has been exposed to a calculus-based general physics
course (from a textbook such as that by Halliday and Resnick) and a course in calculus (including
the handling of differentiations of field functions). No prior knowledge of differential equations is
required. Differential equations and new mathematical methods are developed in the text as the
occasion demands. Vectors are used from the start.
The book has 17 chapters, and with appropriate omission, the essential topics can be covered in
a one-semester, four-hour course. We do not make any specific suggestions for a shorter course. We
usually vary the topics to suit the ability and mathematical background of the students. We would
encourage the more enthusiastic and able students to attempt to master on their own the material not
covered in class (for extra credit).
A major departure of this book from the conventional approach is the introduction of the
Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formulations of mechanics at an early stage. In the conventional
approach to the subject, Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formulations are presented near the end of the
course, and students rarely develop a reasonable familiarity with these essential methods.
The choice of topics and their treatment throughout the book are intended to emphasize the mod-
ern point of view. Applications to other branches of physics are made wherever possible. Special
note is made of concepts that are important to the development of modern physics. Also, the rela-
tionship between symmetries and the laws of conservation—a subject directly relevant to the most
modern developments of physics—is emphasized.
The student will find that a generous amount of detail has been given in mathematical manipula-
tions, and that occurrences of “it may be shown that” have been kept to a minimum. However, to
ensure that the student does not lose sight of the development underway, some of the more lengthy
and tedious algebraic manipulations have been omitted when possible.
Each chapter contains a set of homework problems of varying degrees of difficulty. They are
intended to supplement or amplify the material in the text and are arranged in the order in which
the material is covered in the chapter. No effort has been made to trace the origins of the homework
problems and examples in our book.
We have omitted a discussion of the historical development of the subject. This is because of the
length of the book, not a lack of interest on the author’s part. Also, references to the original litera-
ture have been omitted except for recent works to which the student may be expected to have access.
Many individuals have been very helpful in the preparation of this text. I wish to thank my col-
leagues at California State University, Stanislaus, for many helpful suggestions and discussions.

Tai L. Chow
Monterey Park, CA

xv
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Author
Dr. Tai Chow was born and raised in China. He received the Bachelor of Science degree in phys-
ics from National Taiwan University, a Master’s degree in physics from Case Western Reserve
University in Cleveland, and a Ph.D. degree in physics from the University of Rochester in New
York. Since 1970, Dr. Chow has been in the Department of Physics at California State University,
Stanislaus, and served as the department chairman for 18 years. He has also served as a visiting
professor at the University of California at Davis and Berkeley and has worked as a summer faculty
fellow at Stanford University and at NASA/Ames Center. Dr. Chow has published more than 40 arti-
cles in physics and astrophysics journals and is the author of four textbooks: Classical Mechanics,
published in 1995 by John Wiley & Sons; Mathematical Methods for Physicists, published in 2000
by Cambridge University Press; Introduction to Electromagnetic Theory, published in 2005 by
Jones & Bartlett Publishers; and Gravity, Black Holes, and the Very Early Universe, published in
2008 by Springer.

xvii
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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