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IEA STATISTICS
Please note that this PDF is subject to
specific restrictions that limit its use and
distribution. The terms and conditions are
available online at http://www.iea.org/
termsandconditionsuseandcopyright/

2014
EDITION

CO2 EMISSIONS
FROM FUEL COMBUSTION

International
Energy Agency
2014
EDITION

CO2 EMISSIONS
FROM FUEL COMBUSTION
In recognition of fundamental changes in the way governments approach energy-
related environmental issues, the IEA has prepared this publication on CO2 emissions
from fuel combustion. This annual publication was first published in 1997 and has
become an essential tool for analysts and policy makers in many international fora
such as the Conference of the Parties.
The twentieth session of the Conference of the Parties to the Climate Change
Convention (COP 20), in conjunction with the tenth meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto
Protocol (CMP 10), will be meeting in Lima, Peru from 1 to 12 December 2014.
The data in this book are designed to assist in understanding the evolution of the
emissions of CO2 from 1971 to 2012 for more than 140 countries and regions by
sector and by fuel. Emissions were calculated using IEA energy databases and the
default methods and emission factors from the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for
National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

(61 2014 24 1 E1) €165

ISBN 978-92-64-21711-9

-:HSTCQE=WV\VV^:
 2014
EDITION

CO2 EMISSIONS
FROM FUEL COMBUSTION
 INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY
The International Energy Agency (IEA), an autonomous agency, was established in November 1974.
Its primary mandate was – and is – two-fold: to promote energy security amongst its member
countries through collective response to physical disruptions in oil supply, and provide authoritative
research and analysis on ways to ensure reliable, affordable and clean energy for its 29 member
countries and beyond. The IEA carries out a comprehensive programme of energy co-operation among
its member countries, each of which is obliged to hold oil stocks equivalent to 90 days of its net imports.
The Agency’s aims include the following objectives:
n Secure member countries’ access to reliable and ample supplies of all forms of energy; in particular,
through maintaining effective emergency response capabilities in case of oil supply disruptions.
n Promote sustainable energy policies that spur economic growth and environmental protection
in a global context – particularly in terms of reducing greenhouse-gas emissions that contribute
to climate change.
n Improve transparency of international markets through collection and analysis of
energy data.
n Support global collaboration on energy technology to secure future energy supplies
and mitigate their environmental impact, including through improved energy
efficiency and development and deployment of low-carbon technologies.
n Find solutions to global energy challenges through engagement and
dialogue with non-member countries, industry, international
organisations and other stakeholders.
IEA member countries:
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Canada
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
This publication reflects the views of the International Energy Agency
(IEA) Secretariat but does not necessarily reflect those of individual France
IEA member countries. The IEA makes no representation or Germany
warranty, express or implied, in respect to the publication’s
contents (including its completeness or accuracy) and shall not
Greece
be responsible for any use of, or reliance on, the publication. Hungary
This document and any map included herein are without Ireland
prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, Italy
to the delimitation of international frontiers and
Japan Secure Sustainable Together
boundaries, and to the name of any territory, city or area.
Korea (Republic of)
Luxembourg
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Slovak Republic
© OECD/IEA, 2014 Spain
International Energy Agency Sweden
9 rue de la Fédération Switzerland
75739 Paris Cedex 15, France Turkey
www.iea.org United Kingdom
Please note that this publication United States
is subject to specific restrictions
that limit its use and distribution. The European Commission
The terms and conditions are available online at also participates in
http://www.iea.org/termsandconditionsuseandcopyright/ the work of the IEA.
 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition) - iii

FOREWORD
Recent years have witnessed a fundamental change in the way governments approach energy-related environ-
mental issues. Promoting sustainable development and combating climate change have become integral aspects of
energy planning, analysis and policy making in many countries, including all IEA member states.
In recognition of the importance attached to the environmental aspects of energy, the IEA Secretariat has prepared
this edition of its published statistics on CO2 emissions from fossil-fuel combustion. These data are also available
on CD-ROM and on the Internet.
The purpose of this volume is to put our best and most current information in the hands of those who need it,
including in particular the participants in the UNFCCC process. The IEA Secretariat is a contributor to the official
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodologies for estimating greenhouse-gas emissions. The
IEA’s energy data are the figures most often cited in the field. For these reasons, we felt it appropriate to publish
this information in a comprehensive form.
It is our hope that this book will assist the reader in better understanding the evolution of CO2 emissions from fuel
combustion from 1971 to 2012 for more than 140 countries and regions, by sector and by fuel. This publication
incorporates comments and suggestions received since the first edition in November 1997.
Most of the data presented in this publication are only for energy-related CO2. Thus they may differ from
countries' official submissions of emissions inventories to the UNFCCC Secretariat.
In addition, summary data for CO2 from non-energy-related sources and gas flaring, and emissions of CH4, N2O,
HFC, PFC and SF6 are shown in Part III in cooperation with the PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment
Agency and the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (JRC).
The publication also includes information on “Key Sources” from fuel combustion, as developed in the IPCC
Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.
This report is published under my responsibility as Executive Director of the IEA and does not necessarily reflect
the views of IEA member countries.

Maria Van der Hoeven

Executive Director
© IEA/OECD, 2014

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

iv - CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition)

What’s New?
Geographical coverage
• As Estonia became an IEA member in May 2014, it is now included within the aggregate IEA Total, start-
ing in 1990.
• The European Union aggregate now also includes Croatia, an EU member since 1 July 2013.
• The IEA continues to expand the coverage of its statistics reports and encourage more countries to collabo-
rate on data exchange. This year data have become available for Mauritius from 1971 to 2012 and these data
are presented in this edition of the publication. Therefore, Mauritius, presented individually, has been re-
moved from the region Other Africa.
• In accordance with article 27 (1) of the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, the Government of Canada notified
the Secretary-General of the United Nations of its decision to withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol. This ac-
tion became effective for Canada on 15 December 2012 in accordance with article 27 (2). In this edition,
Canada has been removed from the aggregates Annex I Kyoto Parties, as specified in Part I, Chapter 4:
Geographical coverage.

Indicators
The GDP PPP data, as taken from external sources as specified in Part I, Chapter 3: Indicator sources and
methods, have been revised to reflect the changes to purchasing power parity rates based on the 2011 Interna-
tional Comparison Program (ICP) published in 2014. The ICP has worked for six years to better estimate the
value of the PPP basket of goods for all countries for which the World Bank calculates GDP PPP. For many
countries this value has changed significantly in comparison to previous ICP exercises. This leads to significant
revisions to GDP PPP for many countries compared to previous publications.
Due to these revisions, the CO2 / GDP PPP indicator consequently shows significant revisions for some coun-
tries and regions compared with the previous edition of this publication.

Products
The product aggregate “coal/peat” has been renamed as “coal”. In the tables and figures presented in this publi-
cation, “coal” refers to the aggregate of coal, peat and oil shale.
© IEA/OECD, 2014

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition) - v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

2012 CO2 EMISSIONS OVERVIEW

Recent trends in CO2 emissions from fuel combustion ........................................................................................... xiii

PART I: METHODOLOGY

1. IEA emissions estimates .................................. I.3 4. Geographical coverage ................................... I.21

2. Units and conversions .................................... I.13 5. IPCC methodologies ....................................... I.25
3. Indicator sources and methods ....................... I.15

PART II: CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION

SUMMARY TABLES
CO2 emissions: Sectoral Approach ......................... II.4 Population ............................................................. II.40
CO2 emissions from international marine CO2 emissions / TPES .......................................... II.43
bunkers ........................................................... II.16 CO2 emissions / GDP ............................................ II.46
CO2 emissions from international aviation CO2 emissions / population ................................... II.52
bunkers ........................................................... II.19 Per capita emissions by sector in 2012 ................. II.55
CO2 emissions by sector in 2012.......................... II.22 Electricity output .................................................. II.58
CO2 emissions with electricity and heat CO2 emissions per kWh ........................................ II.61
allocated to consuming sectors in 2012 ......... II.25 CO2 emissions and drivers
Total primary energy supply ................................. II.28 (Kaya decomposition) .................................... II.73
GDP ....................................................................... II.34

GLOBAL AND REGIONAL TOTALS

World .................................................................... II.92 OECD Asia Oceania ........................................... II.114
Annex I Parties .................................................. II.94 OECD Europe ..................................................... II.116
Annex II Parties............................................. II.96 European Union - 28........................................... II.118
North America ........................................... II.98 Non-OECD Total................................................ II.120
Europe ..................................................... II.100
Non-OECD Europe and Eurasia ......................... II.122
Asia Oceania ........................................... II.102
Economies in Transition.............................. II.104 Africa .................................................................. II.124
Non-Annex I Parties ........................................ II.106 Asia (excluding China) ....................................... II.126
Annex I Kyoto Parties ..................................... II.108 China (including Hong Kong, China)................. II.128
OECD Total ........................................................ II.110 Non-OECD Americas ......................................... II.130
OECD Americas.................................................. II.112 Middle East......................................................... II.132

COUNTRY TABLES
Albania ................................................................ II.136 Bahrain ............................................................... II.152
Algeria ................................................................. II.138 Bangladesh ......................................................... II.154
Angola ................................................................. II.140 Belarus ................................................................ II.156
Argentina ............................................................. II.142 Belgium .............................................................. II.158
Armenia ............................................................... II.144 Benin................................................................... II.160
Australia .............................................................. II.146 Bolivia ................................................................ II.162
© IEA/OECD, 2014

Austria ................................................................. II.148 Bosnia and Herzegovina ..................................... II.164

Azerbaijan ........................................................... II.150 Botswana ............................................................ II.166

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

vi - CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition)

Brazil ................................................................... II.168 Korea .................................................................. II.274

Brunei Darussalam .............................................. II.170 Kosovo ................................................................ II.276
Bulgaria ............................................................... II.172 Kuwait ................................................................ II.278
Cambodia ............................................................ II.174 Kyrgyzstan .......................................................... II.280
Cameroon ............................................................ II.176 Latvia .................................................................. II.282
Canada ................................................................. II.178 Lebanon .............................................................. II.284
Chile .................................................................... II.180 Libya ................................................................... II.286
People’s Republic of China ................................. II.182 Lithuania ............................................................. II.288
Colombia ............................................................. II.184 Luxembourg ....................................................... II.290
Congo .................................................................. II.186 Malaysia ............................................................. II.292
Democratic Republic of Congo ........................... II.188 Malta ................................................................... II.294
Costa Rica ........................................................... II.190 Mauritius............................................................. II.296
Côte d’Ivoire ....................................................... II.192 Mexico ................................................................ II.298
Croatia ................................................................. II.194 Republic of Moldova .......................................... II.300
Cuba .................................................................... II.196 Mongolia............................................................. II.302
Cyprus ................................................................. II.198 Montenegro......................................................... II.304
Czech Republic ................................................... II.200 Morocco.............................................................. II.306
Denmark .............................................................. II.202 Mozambique ....................................................... II.308
Dominican Republic............................................ II.204 Myanmar............................................................. II.310
Ecuador ............................................................... II.206 Namibia .............................................................. II.312
Egypt ................................................................... II.208 Nepal................................................................... II.314
El Salvador .......................................................... II.210 Netherlands ......................................................... II.316
Eritrea .................................................................. II.212 Netherlands Antilles ........................................... II.318
Estonia ................................................................. II.214 New Zealand ....................................................... II.320
Ethiopia ............................................................... II.216 Nicaragua............................................................ II.322
Finland ................................................................ II.218 Nigeria ................................................................ II.324
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia .......... II.220 Norway ............................................................... II.326
France .................................................................. II.222 Oman .................................................................. II.328
Gabon .................................................................. II.224 Pakistan............................................................... II.330
Georgia ................................................................ II.226 Panama ............................................................... II.332
Germany .............................................................. II.228 Paraguay ............................................................. II.334
Ghana .................................................................. II.230 Peru ..................................................................... II.336
Gibraltar .............................................................. II.232 Philippines .......................................................... II.338
Greece ................................................................. II.234 Poland ................................................................. II.340
Guatemala ........................................................... II.236 Portugal............................................................... II.342
Haiti..................................................................... II.238 Qatar ................................................................... II.344
Honduras ............................................................. II.240 Romania .............................................................. II.346
Hong Kong, China .............................................. II.242 Russian Federation ............................................. II.348
Hungary ............................................................... II.244 Saudi Arabia ....................................................... II.350
Iceland ................................................................. II.246 Senegal ............................................................... II.352
India .................................................................... II.248 Serbia .................................................................. II.354
Indonesia ............................................................. II.250 Singapore ............................................................ II.356
Islamic Republic of Iran ...................................... II.252 Slovak Republic.................................................. II.358
Iraq ...................................................................... II.254 Slovenia .............................................................. II.360
Ireland ................................................................. II.256 South Africa........................................................ II.362
Israel .................................................................... II.258 Spain ................................................................... II.364
Italy ..................................................................... II.260 Sri Lanka ............................................................ II.366
Jamaica ................................................................ II.262 Sudan .................................................................. II.368
Japan.................................................................... II.264 Sweden ............................................................... II.370
Jordan .................................................................. II.266 Switzerland ......................................................... II.372
Kazakhstan .......................................................... II.268 Syrian Arab Republic ......................................... II.374
Kenya .................................................................. II.270 Chinese Taipei .................................................... II.376
© IEA/OECD, 2014

Democratic People’s Republic of Korea ............. II.272 Tajikistan ............................................................ II.378

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition) - vii

United Republic of Tanzania............................... II.380 United Kingdom ................................................. II.398

Thailand .............................................................. II.382 United States ....................................................... II.400
Togo .................................................................... II.384 Uruguay .............................................................. II.402
Trinidad and Tobago ........................................... II.386 Uzbekistan .......................................................... II.404
Tunisia ................................................................. II.388 Venezuela ........................................................... II.406
Turkey ................................................................. II.390 Viet Nam ............................................................ II.408
Turkmenistan....................................................... II.392 Yemen................................................................. II.410
Ukraine ................................................................ II.394 Zambia ................................................................ II.412
United Arab Emirates .......................................... II.396 Zimbabwe ........................................................... II.414

PART III: GREENHOUSE-GAS EMISSIONS

1. Trends in GHG emissions ............................. III.3 3. Total GHG emissions .................................. III.23
2. Sources and methods ..................................... III.9

Kyoto Protocol base years

The year 1990 should be the base year for the estimation and reporting of inventories.
According to the provisions of Article 4.6 of the Convention and Decisions 9/CP.2
and 11/CP.4, the following Annex I Parties that are undergoing the process of transi-
tion to a market economy, are allowed to use a base year or a period of years other
than 1990, as follows:
Bulgaria: to use 1988
Hungary: to use the average of the years 1985 to 1987
Poland: to use 1988
Romania: to use 1989
Slovenia: to use 1986
© IEA/OECD, 2014

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

viii - CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition)

ABBREVIATIONS

Btu: British thermal unit

GJ: gigajoule
GtC: gigatonnes of carbon
GWh: gigawatt hour
J: joule
kcal: kilocalorie
kg: kilogramme
kt: thousand tonnes
ktoe: thousand tonnes of oil equivalent
kWh: kilowatt hour
MJ: megajoule
Mt: million tonnes
MtCO2: million tonnes of carbon dioxide
Mtoe: million tonnes of oil equivalent
m3: cubic metre
PJ: petajoule
t: metric ton = tonne = 1 000 kg
tC: tonne of carbon
Tcal: teracalorie
TJ: terajoule
toe: tonne of oil equivalent = 107 kcal
BKB: brown coal briquettes (braunkohlebriketts)
CEF: carbon emission factor
CHP: combined heat and power
GCV: gross calorific value
GDP: gross domestic product
HHV: higher heating value = GCV
LHV: lower heating value = NCV
NCV: net calorific value
PPP: purchasing power parity
TPES: total primary energy supply
Annex I: See Chapter 4, Geographical coverage
Annex II: See Chapter 4, Geographical coverage
CDM: Clean Development Mechanism
Convention: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
COP: Conference of the Parties to the Convention
EITs: Economies in Transition (see Chapter 4, Geographical coverage)
IEA: International Energy Agency
IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
UN: United Nations
UNECE: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
e estimated
.. not available
- nil
x not applicable
+ growth greater than 1 000%
© IEA/OECD, 2014

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition) - ix

Important cautionary notes

• The estimates of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion presented in this publication are calculated using
the IEA energy balances and the default methods and emission factors from the Revised 1996 IPCC
Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. There are many reasons why the IEA Secretariat
estimates may not be the same as the figures that a country submits to the UNFCCC, even if a
country has accounted for all of its energy use and correctly applied the IPCC Guidelines.
• In this publication, the IEA Secretariat presents CO2 emissions calculated using both the IPCC Reference
Approach and the IPCC Tier 1 Sectoral Approach. In some of the OECD non-member countries, there
can be large differences between the two sets of calculations due to various problems in some energy
data. As a consequence, this can lead to different emission trends between 1990 and 2012 for certain
countries. Please see Chapter 1: IEA emissions estimates for further details.
• Information on “key sources” from fuel combustion, as developed in the IPCC Good Practice Guidance
and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, are only given for combustion
sources and will not include key sources from fugitive emissions, industrial processes, solvents, agricul-
ture and waste. Please see Chapter 1: IEA emissions estimates and Chapter 5: IPCC methodologies for
further information.

Energy data on OECD member and non-member other countries are available on CD-ROM suitable
countries1 are collected by the Energy Data Centre for use on Windows-based systems. To order, please
(EDC) of the IEA Secretariat, headed by Mr. Jean- see the information provided at the end of this
Yves Garnier. The IEA would like to thank and publication.
acknowledge the dedication and professionalism of
In addition, a data service is available on the Internet. It
the statisticians working on energy data in the
includes unlimited access through an annual subscription
countries. Mr. Aidan Kennedy was responsible for the
as well as the possibility to obtain data on a pay-per-
CO2 emissions from fuel combustion estimates and
view basis. Details are available at www.iea.org.
for the preparation of the publication. Desktop
publishing support was provided by Ms. Sharon Enquiries about data or methodology should be
Burghgraeve. Ms. Roberta Quadrelli had overall addressed to:
responsibility for this publication.
Energy Data Centre – CO2 emissions
CO2 emission estimates from 1960 to 2012 for the Telephone: (+33-1) 40-57-66-01
Annex II countries and from 1971 to 2012 for all E-mail: [email protected]

1. This document is without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty

over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and
© IEA/OECD, 2014

boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. In this publi-
cation, “country” refers to a country or a territory, as the case may be.

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

© IEA/OECD, 2014
 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition) - xi

2012 CO2 EMISSIONS OVERVIEW

© IEA/OECD, 2014

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

© IEA/OECD, 2014
 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition) - xiii

RECENT TRENDS IN CO2 EMISSIONS

FROM FUEL COMBUSTION
climate change. The Convention’s ultimate objective
The growing importance of is to stabilise GHG concentrations in the atmosphere
at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
energy-related emissions interference with the climate system. The Conference
of Parties (COP) further recognised that deep cuts in
Climate scientists have observed that carbon dioxide global GHG emissions are required, with a view to
(CO2) concentrations in the atmosphere have been hold the increase in global average temperature below
increasing significantly over the past century, com- 2°C above preindustrial levels, and that Parties should
pared to the rather steady level of the pre-industrial take urgent action to meet this long-term goal, consis-
era (about 280 parts per million in volume, or ppmv). tent with science and on the basis of equity.
The 2013 concentration of CO2 (396 ppmv) was about
40% higher than in the mid-1800s, with an average Energy use and greenhouse gases
growth of 2 ppmv/year in the last ten years. Signifi- Among the many human activities that produce
cant increases have also occurred in levels of methane greenhouse gases, the use of energy represents by far
(CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). the largest source of emissions. Smaller shares corre-
The Fifth Assessment Report from the Intergovern- spond to agriculture, producing mainly CH4 and N2O
from domestic livestock and rice cultivation, and to
mental Panel on Climate Change (Working Group I)
industrial processes not related to energy, producing
states that human influence on the climate system is
mainly fluorinated gases and N2O (Figure 1).
clear (IPCC, 2013). Some impacts of the increased
GHG concentrations may be slow to become apparent Figure 1. Shares of global anthropogenic GHG, 2010*
since stability is an inherent characteristic of the inter-
acting climate, ecological and socio-economic sys-
tems. Even after stabilisation of the atmospheric
concentration of CO2, anthropogenic warming and sea Others*
14%
level rise would continue for centuries due to the time
CO2 90%
scales associated with climate processes and feed- Energy 69%
backs. Some changes in the climate system would be Agriculture
11%
irreversible in the course of a human lifespan.
Industrial
Given the long lifetime of CO2 in the atmosphere, sta- processes 6%
bilising concentrations of greenhouse gases at any CH4 9%
level would require large reductions of global CO2 N2O 1%

emissions from current levels. The lower the chosen * Others include large-scale biomass burning, post-burn decay,
level for stabilisation, the sooner the decline in global peat decay, indirect N2O emissions from non-agricultural
CO2 emissions would need to begin, or the deeper the emissions of NOx and NH3, Waste, and Solvent Use.
emission reduction would need to be over time. The Source: IEA estimates for CO2 from fuel combustion and
EDGAR 4.2 FT2010 estimates for all other sources, (see Part III).
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
© IEA/OECD, 2014

Change (UNFCCC) provides a structure for inter- Key point: Energy emissions, mostly CO2, account for
governmental efforts to tackle the challenge posed by the largest share of global GHG emissions.

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

xiv - CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition)

Within the energy sector1, CO2 resulting from the oxi- the share of fossil fuels within the world energy sup-
dation of carbon in fuels during combustion domi- ply is relatively unchanged over the past 41 years. In
nates the total GHG emissions. 2012, fossil sources accounted for 82% of the global
TPES.
CO2 from energy represents about three quarters of
the anthropogenic GHG emissions for Annex I2 coun- Figure 3. Trend in CO2 emissions from
tries, and almost 70% of global emissions. This per- fossil fuel combustion
centage varies greatly by country, due to diverse GtCO2
national structures.
35
Increasing demand for energy comes from worldwide
30
economic growth and development. Global total pri-
mary energy supply (TPES) more than doubled be- 25
tween 1971 and 2012, mainly relying on fossil fuels 20
(Figure 2).
15
Figure 2. World primary energy supply*
10
Gtoe
14 5

12 18% 0
1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990 2010
10

8 Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge

14% National Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Oak Ridge,
6 82% Tenn., United States.
4
Key point: Since 1870, CO2 emissions from fuel com-
86%
2 bustion have risen exponentially.
0
1971 2012 Growing world energy demand from fossil fuels plays
Fossil Non f ossil a key role in the upward trend in CO2 emissions
* World primary energy supply includes international bunkers.
(Figure 3). Since the Industrial Revolution, annual
CO2 emissions from fuel combustion dramatically
Key point: Fossil fuels still account for most – over increased from near zero to almost 32 GtCO2 in 2012.
80% – of the world energy supply.
The next section provides a brief overview of recent
Despite the growth of non-fossil energy (such as nu- trends in energy-related CO2 emissions, as well as in
clear and hydropower), considered as non-emitting,3 some of the socio-economic drivers of emissions.

1. The energy sector includes emissions from “fuel combustion” (the Recent emissions trends
large majority) and “fugitive emissions”, which are intentional or
unintentional releases of gases resulting from production, processes,
transmission, storage and use of fuels (e.g. CH4 emissions from coal In 2012, global CO2 emissions were 31.7 GtCO2. This
mining).
2. The Annex I Parties to the 1992 UN Framework Convention on represents a 1.2% year-on-year increase in emissions,
Climate Change (UNFCCC) are: Australia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, about half the average annual growth rate since 2000,
Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, and four percentage points less than in 2010, year of
European Economic Community, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, initial recovery after the financial crisis.
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, the Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, the Emissions in non-Annex I countries continued to in-
Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, crease (3.8%), albeit at a lower rate than in 2011,
Ukraine, United Kingdom and United States. See www.unfccc.int. For
country coverage of Annex I Economies in Transition (EIT) and
while emissions in Annex I countries decreased by
Annex II, see Geographical Coverage. 1.5%. In absolute terms, global CO2 emissions in-
3. Excluding the life cycle of all non-emitting sources and excluding creased by 0.4 GtCO2 in 2012, driven primarily by
combustion of biofuels (considered as non-emitting CO2, based on the
© IEA/OECD, 2014

assumption that the released carbon will be reabsorbed by biomass re-

increased emissions from coal and oil in non-Annex I
growth, under balanced conditions). countries (Figure 4).

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition) - xv

Figure 4. Change in CO2 emissions (2011-12) Those shares evolved significantly during the last
MtCO2 decade, following ten years of rather stable relative
700
contributions among fuels. In 2002 in fact, oil still
600
held the largest share of emissions (41%), three per-
500
centage points ahead of coal (Figure 6).
400 Figure 6. Fuel shares in global CO2 emissions
300
200 60%

100
50%
0
-100
40%
-200
-300 30%
Coal Oil Gas Other Total

Annex I Non-Annex I 20%

Key point: In 2012, emissions from coal and oil in- 10%
creased in non-Annex I countries and decreased in 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2012
Annex I countries. Coal Oil Gas

Emissions by fuel Key point: The fossil fuel mix changed significantly in
the last 10 years, with coal replacing oil as the largest
Although coal represented 29% of the world TPES in source of CO2 emissions.
2012, it accounted for 44% of the global CO2 emis-
sions due to its heavy carbon content per unit of en- In 2012, CO2 emissions from the combustion of coal
increased by 1.3% to 13.9 GtCO2. Currently, coal fills
ergy released, and to the fact that 18% of the TPES
much of the growing energy demand of those devel-
derives from carbon-neutral fuels (Figure 5). As oping countries (such as China and India) where en-
compared to gas, coal is nearly twice as emission ergy-intensive industrial production is growing
intensive on average.4 rapidly and large coal reserves exist with limited re-
Figure 5. World primary energy supply and
serves of other energy sources.
CO2 emissions: shares by fuel in 2012 Emissions by region
Percent share
Non-Annex I countries, collectively, represented 55%
of global CO2 emissions in 2012. At the regional
level, annual growth rates varied greatly: emissions
TPES 32% 29% 21% 18% growth in China (3.1%) was lower than in previous
years, however, emissions grew strongly in Africa
(5.6%), Asia excluding China (4.9%) and the Middle
82% East (4.5%). Emissions in Latin America5 (4.1%) and
Annex II Asia Oceania (2.5%) grew at a more moder-
CO2
CO
CO2 2
35% 44% 20% 1% ate rate, while emissions decreased in Annex II North
America (-3.7%), Annex II Europe (-0.5%) and
Annex I EIT (-0.8%) (Figure 7).
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Regional differences in contributions to global emis-
Oil Coal Gas Other* sions conceal even larger differences among individ-
* Other includes nuclear, hydro, geothermal, solar, tide, wind, ual countries. Nearly two-thirds of global emissions
biofuels and waste. for 2012 originated from just ten countries, with the
shares of China (26%) and the United States (16%) far
Key point: Globally, coal combustion generates the surpassing those of all others. Combined, these two
largest share of CO2 emissions, although oil still is countries alone produced 13.3 GtCO2. The top-10
the largest energy source. emitting countries include five Annex I countries and
five non-Annex I countries (Figure 8).

4. Default carbon emission factors from the Revised 1996 IPCC

© IEA/OECD, 2014

Guidelines: 15.3 tC/TJ for gas, 16.8 to 27.5 tC/TJ for oil products, 25.8 5. For the purposes of this discussion, Latin America includes non-
to 29.1 tC/TJ for primary coal products. OECD Americas and Chile.

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

xvi - CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition)

Figure 7. Change in CO2 emissions by region Emissions by sector

(2011-12)
% change
Two sectors produced nearly two-thirds of global CO2
emissions in 2012: electricity and heat generation, by
World far the largest, accounted for 42%, while transport
accounted for 23% (Figure 9).
Af rica
Figure 9. World CO2 emissions by sector in 2012
Asia excluding China
Residential
Middle East 6% Transport
Other * 1%
Latin America 9%

China * Industry
18%
Annex II Asia Oceania Industry
20% Electricity and
Other heat 42% Residential
11%
Annex II Europe
Transport Other *
Annex I EIT
23% 12%
Annex II North America

-4% -2% 0% 2% 4% 6%
Note: Also shows allocation of electricity and heat to end-use
* China includes Hong Kong, China. sectors.
* Other includes commercial/public services, agriculture/forestry,
Key point: Emissions in Annex II North America fell fishing, energy industries other than electricity and heat genera-
in 2012; emissions in all non-Annex I regions grew, tion, and other emissions not specified elsewhere.
with Africa showing the largest relative increase.
Key point: Two sectors combined, generation of elec-
tricity and heat and transport, represented nearly
Figure 8. Top 10 emitting countries in 2012 two-thirds of global emissions in 2012.
GtCO2
0 2 4 6 8 10
Generation of electricity and heat worldwide relies
heavily on coal, the most carbon-intensive fossil fuel.
China Countries such as Australia, China, India, Poland and
United States South Africa produce over two-thirds of their electric-
ity and heat through the combustion of coal.
India

Russian Federation Figure 10. CO2 emissions from electricity

and heat generation*
Japan
GtCO2
Germany 14

Korea
12
Canada
10 Other
Islamic Republic of Iran Top 10 total: 21.0 GtCO2
World total: 31.7 GtCO2 8 Gas
Saudi Arabia
Oil
6
Key point: The top 10 emitting countries account for Coal
4
two-thirds of global CO2 emissions.
2

As different regions and countries have contrasting 0

economic and social structures, the picture would 1990 2012
change significantly when moving from absolute * Refers to main activity producers and autoproducers of
emissions to indicators such as emissions per capita or electricity and heat.

per GDP. A more comprehensive analysis is given in Key point: CO2 emissions from electricity and heat
© IEA/OECD, 2014

the section Coupling emissions with socio-economic almost doubled between 1990 and 2012, driven by the
indicators later in this chapter. large increase of generation from coal.

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition) - xvii

Between 2011 and 2012, CO2 emissions from electric- (Figure 12). For example, among the five largest emit-
ity and heat increased by 1.8%, faster than total emis- ters, the levels of per-capita emissions were very di-
sions. While the share of oil in electricity and heat verse, ranging from 1.6 tCO2 for India and 6.1 tCO2 for
emissions has declined steadily since 1990, the share China to 16.1 tCO2 for the United States. On average,
of gas increased slightly, and the share of coal in- industrialised countries emit far larger amounts of CO2
creased significantly, from 65% in 1990 to 72% in per capita than developing countries. The lowest levels
2012 (Figure 10). Carbon intensity developments for worldwide are in Asia excluding China and in Africa.
this sector will strongly depend on the fuel mix used to Figure 12. CO2 emissions per capita
generate electricity, including the share of non-emitting by major world regions
sources, such as renewables and nuclear, as well as on tCO2 per capita
the potential penetration of CCS technologies.
World
As for transport, the fast emissions growth was driven by
emissions from the road sector, which increased by 64%
Annex II North America
since 1990 and accounted for about three quarters of
Annex II Asia Oceania
transport emissions in 2012 (Figure 11). It is interesting
to note that despite efforts to limit emissions from inter- Annex I EIT

national transport, emissions from marine and aviation Middle East

bunkers, 66% and 80% higher in 2012 than in 1990 re- Annex II Europe
spectively, grew even faster than those from road. China *
Other
Figure 11. CO2 emissions from transport
GtCO2 Latin America

8 Asia excluding China

Africa
7
Aviation bunkers
0 5 10 15 20
6
Marine bunkers 2012 1990
5
* China includes Hong Kong, China.
Other transport
4 Key point: Emissions per capita generally decreased
3 Domestic aviation in time across regions.
2 Domestic navigation Emissions per unit of GDP7 are also very variable
1 across regions (Figure 13). Although climate, economic
Road
structure and other variables can affect energy use, rela-
0
1990 2012 tively high values of emissions per GDP indicate a po-
tential for decoupling CO2 emissions from economic
Key point: CO2 emissions from road are driving the growth. Possible improvements can derive from fuel
growth of transport emissions. switching away from carbon-intensive sources or from
energy efficiency at all stages of the energy value chain
Coupling emissions with socio-economic (from raw material extraction to energy end-use).8
indicators6
All the five largest emitters have shown reductions of
Indicators such as those briefly discussed in this sec- emissions per unit of GDP between 1990 and 2012, in
tion strongly reflect energy constraints and choices line with the average reduction observed globally
made to support the economic activities of each coun- (28%). This decreasing trend was most pronounced
try. They also reflect sectors that predominate in dif-
ferent countries’ economies.
7. Throughout this analysis, GDP refers to GDP in 2005 USD, using
The range of per-capita emission levels across the purchasing power parities. A note of caution is necessary concerning
world is very large, highlighting wide divergences in the indicator of CO2 emissions per GDP. It can be very useful to meas-
the way different countries and regions use energy ure efforts over time for one country, but has limitations when compar-
ing countries, as it is very sensitive to the base year used for the GDP
purchasing power parity (PPP).
8. The IEA’s Policies and Measures Databases offer access to
6. No single indicator can provide a complete picture of a country’s information on energy-related policies and measures taken or planned
CO2 emissions performance or its relative capacity to reduce emissions. to reduce GHG emissions, improve energy efficiency and support
© IEA/OECD, 2014

The indicators discussed here are certainly incomplete and should only renewable energy development and deployment. The online databases
be used to provide a rough description of the situation in a country. can be consulted at: www.iea.org/policiesandmeasures/.

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

xviii - CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2014 Edition)

Figure 13. CO2 emissions per GDP* Figure 14. Trends in CO2 emission intensities
by major world regions for the top five emitting countries*
kgCO2 per USD 1.8

CO2 / GDP PPP (kgCO2 per 2005 USD)

1.6
World
Russian Federation
1.4
China
1.2
China **
1
Annex I EIT United States
0.8
Other
0.6
Middle East
0.4
Annex II North America
0.2
Annex II Asia Oceania India Japan
0
Asia excluding China
0 5 10 15 20 25
Africa
CO2 / population (tCO2 per capita)
Latin America
1990 2012
Annex II Europe
* The size of the circle represents the total CO2 emissions from
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 the country in that year.
2012 1990
Key point: All top five emitters reduced their emis-
* GDP in 2005 USD, using purchasing power parities. sions per unit of GDP between 1990 and 2012, while
** China includes Hong Kong, China. emissions per capita showed contrasting trends.
Key point: Emission intensities in economic terms
Figure 15. Global CO2 emissions and drivers
vary greatly around the world. (Kaya decomposition)
1990=100
for China and the Russian Federation, whose 1990
160
levels were significantly higher than those of other
countries (Figure 14), and for the United States. 140

Per-capita emissions, which increased by 13% globally 120

between 1990 and 2012, showed instead contrasting
trends among the top five emitting countries. For ex- 100
ample, China tripled its per-capita emissions, while
India more than doubled theirs, as did some other rap- 80

idly expanding economies. Conversely, per-capita

60
emissions decreased significantly in both the 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2012
Russian Federation (21%) and the United States (17%), CO2 emissions Population
although following very different patterns. Values for GDP/population TPES/GDP
Russia dramatically dropped in the early nineties, and CO2/TPES (ESCII)
have progressively increased in recent years, while val- Key point: Despite some decoupling between eco-
ues for the United States started to decrease from 2008 nomic growth and energy use, increasing wealth and
onwards, having remained stable for many years. population, with an unchanged carbon intensity of the
On a global level, CO2 emissions grew by 51% be- mix, drove dramatic CO2 emissions increases
tween 1990 and 2012. A simple decomposition9
shows the main driving factors of the world CO2 mix10, the combined growth in population (33%) and
emissions trend. Globally, the economic growth par- in per capita GDP (57%) led to a dramatic increase in
tially decoupled from energy use, as energy intensity global CO2 emissions between 1990 and 2012.
decreased by 27% over the period. However, with a Such behaviour varies greatly among countries and
practically unchanged carbon intensity of the energy regions. Understanding the factors driving CO2 emis-
sions trends will be essential to designing sound and
effective policies aiming at emissions reductions.
9. CO2 emissions can be decomposed into the product of four factors:
population, per capita GDP, TPES/GDP, CO2/TPES. For a more de-
© IEA/OECD, 2014

tailed description of the Kaya decomposition, see Part I, Methodology, 10. Also known, in its index form, as Energy Sector Carbon Intensity Index
Chapter 1: IEA emissions estimates. (ESCII), as in the IEA publication Tracking Clean Energy Progress 2014.

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

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