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IEA STATISTICS
Please note that this PDF is subject to
specific restrictions that limit its use and
distribution. The terms and conditions are
available online at http://www.iea.org/
termsandconditionsuseandcopyright/

2013
EDITION

CO2 EMISSIONS
FROM FUEL COMBUSTION

International
Energy Agency
2013
EDITION

CO2 EMISSIONS
FROM FUEL COMBUSTION
In recognition of fundamental changes in the way governments approach energy-
related environmental issues, the IEA has prepared this publication on CO2
emissions from fuel combustion. This annual publication was first published in
1997 and has become an essential tool for analysts and policy makers in many
international fora such as the Conference of the Parties.
The eighteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the Climate Change
Convention (COP 18), in conjunction with the eighth meeting of the Parties to the
Kyoto Protocol (CMP 8), will be meeting in Doha, Qatar from 26 November to
7 December 2012.
The data in this book are designed to assist in understanding the evolution of the
emissions of CO2 from 1971 to 2010 for more than 140 countries and regions by
sector and by fuel. Emissions were calculated using IEA energy databases and
the default methods and emission factors from the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines
for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

(61 2013 25 1 P1) €165

ISBN 978-92-64-20316-7

-:HSTCQE=WUXV[\:
 2013
EDITION

CO2 EMISSIONS
FROM FUEL COMBUSTION
 INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY
The International Energy Agency (IEA), an autonomous agency, was established in November 1974.
Its primary mandate was – and is – two-fold: to promote energy security amongst its member
countries through collective response to physical disruptions in oil supply, and provide authoritative
research and analysis on ways to ensure reliable, affordable and clean energy for its 28 member
countries and beyond. The IEA carries out a comprehensive programme of energy co-operation among
its member countries, each of which is obliged to hold oil stocks equivalent to 90 days of its net imports.
The Agency’s aims include the following objectives:
n Secure member countries’ access to reliable and ample supplies of all forms of energy; in particular,
through maintaining effective emergency response capabilities in case of oil supply disruptions.
n Promote sustainable energy policies that spur economic growth and environmental protection
in a global context – particularly in terms of reducing greenhouse-gas emissions that contribute
to climate change.
n Improve transparency of international markets through collection and analysis of
energy data.
n Support global collaboration on energy technology to secure future energy supplies
and mitigate their environmental impact, including through improved energy
efficiency and development and deployment of low-carbon technologies.
n Find solutions to global energy challenges through engagement and
dialogue with non-member countries, industry, international
organisations and other stakeholders.
IEA member countries:
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Canada
Czech Republic
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Korea (Republic of)
Luxembourg
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Slovak Republic
© OECD/IEA, 2013 Spain
International Energy Agency Sweden
9 rue de la Fédération Switzerland
75739 Paris Cedex 15, France Turkey
www.iea.org United Kingdom
Please note that this publication United States
is subject to specific restrictions
that limit its use and distribution. The European Commission
The terms and conditions are available online at also participates in
http://www.iea.org/termsandconditionsuseandcopyright/ the work of the IEA.
 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition) - iii

FOREWORD
Recent years have witnessed a fundamental change in the way governments approach energy-related environ-
mental issues. Promoting sustainable development and combating climate change have become integral aspects of
energy planning, analysis and policy making in many countries, including all IEA member states.
In recognition of the importance attached to the environmental aspects of energy, the IEA Secretariat has prepared
this edition of its published statistics on CO2 emissions from fossil-fuel combustion. These data are also available
on CD-ROM and on the Internet.
The purpose of this volume is to put our best and most current information in the hands of those who need it,
including in particular the participants in the UNFCCC process. The IEA Secretariat is a contributor to the official
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodologies for estimating greenhouse-gas emissions. The
IEA’s energy data are the figures most often cited in the field. For these reasons, we felt it appropriate to publish
this information in a comprehensive form.
It is our hope that this book will assist the reader in better understanding the evolution of CO2 emissions from fuel
combustion from 1971 to 2011 for more than 140 countries and regions, by sector and by fuel. This publication
incorporates comments and suggestions received since the first edition in November 1997.
Most of the data presented in this publication are only for energy-related CO2. Thus they may differ from
countries' official submissions of emissions inventories to the UNFCCC Secretariat.
In addition, summary data for CO2 from non-energy-related sources and gas flaring, and emissions of CH4, N2O,
HFC, PFC and SF6 are shown in Part III in cooperation with the PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment
Agency and the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (JRC).
The publication also includes information on “Key Sources” from fuel combustion, as developed in the IPCC
Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.
This report is published under my responsibility as Executive Director of the IEA and does not necessarily reflect
the views of IEA member countries.

Maria Van der Hoeven

Executive Director
© IEA/OECD, 2013

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

iv - CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition)

What’s New?
Decomposition of CO2 emissions into drivers (Kaya identity): graphs and tables
In this edition, new graphs and tables present the decomposition of CO2 emissions into drivers, following the
“Kaya identity”. CO2 emissions are decomposed into the product of four factors: population, GDP/population
(per capita economic output), TPES/GDP (energy intensity of the economic output), and CO2/TPES (carbon in-
tensity of the energy mix). Such decomposition helps to assess the relative contributions of those different fac-
tors towards trends in CO2 emissions, at the country and global levels.
The layout of summary tables, country graphs and country tables in Part II has been modified accordingly. For
a complete description of the methodology used, please see Part I, Chapter 1: IEA emissions estimates.

© IEA/OECD, 2013

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition) - v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

2011 CO2 EMISSIONS OVERVIEW

Recent trends in CO2 emissions from fuel combustion ........................................................................................... xiii
Regional aspects of the energy-climate challenge................................................................................................ xxvii

PART I: METHODOLOGY

1. IEA emissions estimates .................................. I.3 4. Geographical coverage ................................... I.21

2. Units and conversions .................................... I.13 5. IPCC methodologies ....................................... I.25
3. Indicator sources and methods ....................... I.15

PART II: CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION

SUMMARY TABLES
CO2 emissions: Sectoral Approach ......................... II.4 Population ............................................................. II.43
CO2 emissions: Reference Approach .................... II.16 CO2 emissions / TPES .......................................... II.46
CO2 emissions from international marine CO2 emissions / GDP ............................................ II.49
bunkers ........................................................... II.19 CO2 emissions / population ................................... II.55
CO2 emissions from international aviation Per capita emissions by sector in 2011 ................. II.58
bunkers ........................................................... II.22 Per capita emissions with electricity and heat
CO2 emissions by sector in 2011.......................... II.25 allocated to consuming sectors in 2011 ......... II.61
CO2 emissions with electricity and heat Electricity output .................................................. II.64
allocated to consuming sectors in 2011 ......... II.28 CO2 emissions per kWh ........................................ II.67
Total primary energy supply ................................. II.31 CO2 emissions and drivers
GDP ....................................................................... II.37 (Kaya decomposition) .................................... II.79

GLOBAL AND REGIONAL TOTALS

World .................................................................... II.98 OECD Asia Oceania ........................................... II.120
Annex I Parties ................................................ II.100 OECD Europe ..................................................... II.122
Annex II Parties........................................... II.102 European Union - 27........................................... II.124
North America ......................................... II.104 Non-OECD Europe and Eurasia ......................... II.126
Europe ..................................................... II.106
Asia Oceania ........................................... II.108 Africa .................................................................. II.128
Economies in Transition.............................. II.110 Asia (excluding China) ....................................... II.130
Non-Annex I Parties ........................................ II.112 China (including Hong Kong) ............................ II.132
Annex I Kyoto Parties ..................................... II.114 Non-OECD Americas ......................................... II.134
OECD Total ........................................................ II.116 Middle East......................................................... II.136
OECD Americas.................................................. II.118

COUNTRY TABLES
Albania ................................................................ II.140 Austria ................................................................ II.152
Algeria ................................................................. II.142 Azerbaijan........................................................... II.154
Angola ................................................................. II.144 Bahrain ............................................................... II.156
Argentina ............................................................. II.146 Bangladesh ......................................................... II.158
© IEA/OECD, 2013

Armenia ............................................................... II.148 Belarus ................................................................ II.160

Australia .............................................................. II.150 Belgium .............................................................. II.162

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

vi - CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition)

Benin ................................................................... II.164 Jordan ................................................................. II.270

Bolivia ................................................................. II.166 Kazakhstan ......................................................... II.272
Bosnia and Herzegovina...................................... II.168 Kenya .................................................................. II.274
Botswana ............................................................. II.170 Democratic People’s Republic of Korea ............ II.276
Brazil ................................................................... II.172 Korea .................................................................. II.278
Brunei Darussalam .............................................. II.174 Kosovo ................................................................ II.280
Bulgaria ............................................................... II.176 Kuwait ................................................................ II.282
Cambodia ............................................................ II.178 Kyrgyzstan .......................................................... II.284
Cameroon ............................................................ II.180 Latvia .................................................................. II.286
Canada ................................................................. II.182 Lebanon .............................................................. II.288
Chile .................................................................... II.184 Libya ................................................................... II.290
People’s Republic of China ................................. II.186 Lithuania ............................................................. II.292
Chinese Taipei..................................................... II.188 Luxembourg ....................................................... II.294
Colombia ............................................................. II.190 Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia .......... II.296
Congo .................................................................. II.192 Malaysia ............................................................. II.298
Democratic Republic of Congo ........................... II.194 Malta ................................................................... II.300
Costa Rica ........................................................... II.196 Mexico ................................................................ II.302
Côte d’Ivoire ....................................................... II.198 Republic of Moldova .......................................... II.304
Croatia ................................................................. II.200 Mongolia............................................................. II.306
Cuba .................................................................... II.202 Montenegro......................................................... II.308
Cyprus ................................................................. II.204 Morocco.............................................................. II.310
Czech Republic ................................................... II.206 Mozambique ....................................................... II.312
Denmark .............................................................. II.208 Myanmar............................................................. II.314
Dominican Republic............................................ II.210 Namibia .............................................................. II.316
Ecuador ............................................................... II.212 Nepal................................................................... II.318
Egypt ................................................................... II.214 Netherlands ......................................................... II.320
El Salvador .......................................................... II.216 Netherlands Antilles ........................................... II.322
Eritrea .................................................................. II.218 New Zealand ....................................................... II.324
Estonia ................................................................. II.220 Nicaragua............................................................ II.326
Ethiopia ............................................................... II.222 Nigeria ................................................................ II.328
Finland ................................................................ II.224 Norway ............................................................... II.330
France .................................................................. II.226 Oman .................................................................. II.332
Gabon .................................................................. II.228 Pakistan............................................................... II.334
Georgia ................................................................ II.230 Panama ............................................................... II.336
Germany .............................................................. II.232 Paraguay ............................................................. II.338
Ghana .................................................................. II.234 Peru ..................................................................... II.340
Gibraltar .............................................................. II.236 Philippines .......................................................... II.342
Greece ................................................................. II.238 Poland ................................................................. II.344
Guatemala ........................................................... II.240 Portugal............................................................... II.346
Haiti..................................................................... II.242 Qatar ................................................................... II.348
Honduras ............................................................. II.244 Romania .............................................................. II.350
Hong Kong, China .............................................. II.246 Russian Federation ............................................. II.352
Hungary ............................................................... II.248 Saudi Arabia ....................................................... II.354
Iceland ................................................................. II.250 Senegal ............................................................... II.356
India .................................................................... II.252 Serbia .................................................................. II.358
Indonesia ............................................................. II.254 Singapore ............................................................ II.360
Islamic Republic of Iran ...................................... II.256 Slovak Republic.................................................. II.362
Iraq ...................................................................... II.258 Slovenia .............................................................. II.364
Ireland ................................................................. II.260 South Africa........................................................ II.366
Israel .................................................................... II.262 Spain ................................................................... II.368
Italy ..................................................................... II.264 Sri Lanka ............................................................ II.370
© IEA/OECD, 2013

Jamaica ................................................................ II.266 Sudan .................................................................. II.372

Japan.................................................................... II.268 Sweden ............................................................... II.374

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition) - vii

Switzerland.......................................................... II.376 United Arab Emirates ......................................... II.398

Syrian Arab Republic .......................................... II.378 United Kingdom ................................................. II.400
Tajikistan ............................................................. II.380 United States ....................................................... II.402
United Republic of Tanzania............................... II.382 Uruguay .............................................................. II.404
Thailand .............................................................. II.384 Uzbekistan .......................................................... II.406
Togo .................................................................... II.386 Venezuela ........................................................... II.408
Trinidad and Tobago ........................................... II.388 Vietnam .............................................................. II.410
Tunisia ................................................................. II.390 Yemen................................................................. II.412
Turkey ................................................................. II.392 Zambia ................................................................ II.414
Turkmenistan....................................................... II.394 Zimbabwe ........................................................... II.416
Ukraine ................................................................ II.396

PART III: GREENHOUSE-GAS EMISSIONS

1. Shares and trends in GHG emissions ............ III.3 3. Total GHG emissions .................................. III.28
2. Sources and methods ................................... III.11

Kyoto Protocol base years

The year 1990 should be the base year for the estimation and reporting of inventories.
According to the provisions of Article 4.6 of the Convention and Decisions 9/CP.2
and 11/CP.4, the following Annex I Parties that are undergoing the process of transi-
tion to a market economy, are allowed to use a base year or a period of years other
than 1990, as follows:
Bulgaria: to use 1988
Hungary: to use the average of the years 1985 to 1987
Poland: to use 1988
Romania: to use 1989
Slovenia: to use 1986
© IEA/OECD, 2013

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

viii - CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition)

ABBREVIATIONS

Btu: British thermal unit

GJ: gigajoule
GtC: gigatonnes of carbon
GWh: gigawatt hour
J: joule
kcal: kilocalorie
kg: kilogramme
kt: thousand tonnes
ktoe: thousand tonnes of oil equivalent
kWh: kilowatt hour
MJ: megajoule
Mt: million tonnes
Mtoe: million tonnes of oil equivalent
m3: cubic metre
PJ: petajoule
t: metric ton = tonne = 1 000 kg
tC: tonne of carbon
Tcal: teracalorie
TJ: terajoule
toe: tonne of oil equivalent = 107 kcal
CEF: carbon emission factor
CHP: combined heat and power
GCV: gross calorific value
GDP: gross domestic product
HHV: higher heating value = GCV
LHV: lower heating value = NCV
NCV: net calorific value
PPP: purchasing power parity
TPES: total primary energy supply
AIJ: Activities Implemented Jointly under the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change
Annex I: See Chapter 4, Geographical coverage
Annex II: See Chapter 4, Geographical coverage
CDM: Clean Development Mechanism
Convention: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
COP: Conference of the Parties to the Convention
EITs: Economies in Transition (see Chapter 4, Geographical coverage)
IEA: International Energy Agency
IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
SBI: Subsidiary Body for Implementation
SBSTA: Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice
TCA: Technology Co-operation Agreement
UN: United Nations
UNECE: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
e estimated
.. not available
- nil
x not applicable
© IEA/OECD, 2013

+ growth greater than 1 000%

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition) - ix

Important cautionary notes

• The estimates of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion presented in this publication are calculated using
the IEA energy balances and the default methods and emission factors from the Revised 1996 IPCC
Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. There are many reasons why the IEA Secretariat
estimates may not be the same as the figures that a country submits to the UNFCCC, even if a
country has accounted for all of its energy use and correctly applied the IPCC Guidelines.
• In this publication, the IEA Secretariat presents CO2 emissions calculated using both the IPCC Reference
Approach and the IPCC Tier 1 Sectoral Approach. In some of the OECD non-member countries, there
can be large differences between the two sets of calculations due to various problems in some energy
data. As a consequence, this can lead to different emission trends between 1990 and 2011 for certain
countries. Please see Chapter 1: IEA emissions estimates for further details.
• Information on “key sources” from fuel combustion, as developed in the IPCC Good Practice Guidance
and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, are only given for combustion
sources and will not include key sources from fugitive emissions, industrial processes, solvents, agricul-
ture and waste. Please see Chapter 1: IEA emissions estimates and Chapter 5: IPCC methodologies for
further information.

Energy data on OECD member and non-member other countries are available on CD-ROM suitable
countries1 are collected by the Energy Data Centre for use on Windows-based systems. To order, please
(EDC) of the IEA Secretariat, headed by Mr. Jean- see the information provided at the end of this
Yves Garnier. The IEA would like to thank and publication.
acknowledge the dedication and professionalism of
In addition, a data service is available on the Internet. It
the statisticians working on energy data in the
includes unlimited access through an annual subscription
countries. Mr. Aidan Kennedy was responsible for the
as well as the possibility to obtain data on a pay-per-
CO2 emissions from fuel combustion estimates and
view basis. Details are available at www.iea.org.
for the preparation of the publication. Desktop
publishing support was provided by Ms. Sharon Enquiries about data or methodology should be
Burghgraeve. Ms. Roberta Quadrelli had overall addressed to:
responsibility for this publication.
Energy Data Centre – CO2 emissions
CO2 emission estimates from 1960 to 2011 for the Telephone: (+33-1) 40-57-66-01,
Annex II countries and from 1971 to 2011 for all E-mail: [email protected].

1. This document is without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty

© IEA/OECD, 2013

over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and

boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. In this publi-
cation, “country” refers to a country or a territory, as the case may be.

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

© IEA/OECD, 2013
 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition) - xi

2011 CO2 EMISSIONS OVERVIEW

© IEA/OECD, 2013

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

© IEA/OECD, 2013
 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition) - xiii

RECENT TRENDS IN CO2 EMISSIONS

FROM FUEL COMBUSTION
is to stabilise GHG concentrations in the atmosphere
The growing importance of at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system. The Conference
energy-related emissions of Parties (COP) further recognised that deep cuts in
global GHG emissions are required, with a view to
Climate scientists have observed that carbon dioxide hold the increase in global average temperature below
(CO2) concentrations in the atmosphere have been 2°C above preindustrial levels, and that Parties should
increasing significantly over the past century, com- take urgent action to meet this long-term goal, consis-
pared to the rather steady level of the pre-industrial tent with science and on the basis of equity.
era (about 280 parts per million in volume, or ppmv).
The 2012 concentration of CO2 (394 ppmv) was about Energy use and greenhouse gases
40% higher than in the mid-1800s, with an average
growth of 2 ppmv/year in the last ten years. Signifi- Among the many human activities that produce
cant increases have also occurred in levels of methane greenhouse gases, the use of energy represents by far
(CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). the largest source of emissions. Smaller shares corre-
spond to agriculture, producing mainly CH4 and N2O
The Fifth Assessment Report from the Intergovern- from domestic livestock and rice cultivation, and to
mental Panel on Climate Change (Working Group I) industrial processes not related to energy, producing
states that human influence on the climate system is mainly fluorinated gases and N2O (Figure 1).
clear (IPCC, 2013). Some impacts of the increased
GHG concentrations may be slow to become apparent Figure 1. Shares of anthropogenic GHG
since stability is an inherent characteristic of the inter- emissions in Annex I countries, 2011*
acting climate, ecological and socio-economic sys-
tems. Even after stabilisation of the atmospheric
concentration of CO2, anthropogenic warming and sea
level rise would continue for centuries due to the time Waste 3%
scales associated with climate processes and feed- Agriculture
Energy 83%
backs. Some changes in the climate system would be 8% CO2 93%
irreversible in the course of a human lifespan. Industrial
processes
Given the long lifetime of CO2 in the atmosphere, sta- 6%
bilising concentrations of greenhouse gases at any
level would require large reductions of global CO2 CH4 6%
emissions from current levels. The lower the chosen N2O 1%
level for stabilisation, the sooner the decline in global
CO2 emissions would need to begin, or the deeper the * Based on Annex I data for 2011; without Land Use, Land-Use
emission reduction would need to be over time. The Change and Forestry, and with Solvent Use included in
Industrial Processes and “other” included with waste.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) provides a structure for inter- Source: UNFCCC.
© IEA/OECD, 2013

governmental efforts to tackle the challenge posed by Key point: Energy emissions, mostly CO2, account for
climate change. The Convention’s ultimate objective the largest share of global GHG emissions.

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

xiv - CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition)

Within the energy sector1, CO2 resulting from the oxi- the share of fossil fuels within the world energy sup-
dation of carbon in fuels during combustion domi- ply is relatively unchanged over the past 40 years. In
nates the total GHG emissions. 2011, fossil sources accounted for 82% of the global
TPES.
CO2 from energy represents about three quarters of
the anthropogenic GHG emissions for Annex I2 coun- Figure 3. Trend in CO2 emissions from
tries, and over 60% of global emissions. This percent- fossil fuel combustion
age varies greatly by country, due to diverse national GtCO2
structures. 35

Increasing demand for energy comes from worldwide 30

economic growth and development. Global total pri-
25
mary energy supply (TPES) more than doubled be-
tween 1971 and 2011, mainly relying on fossil fuels 20

(Figure 2). 15

Figure 2. World primary energy supply* 10

Gtoe 5
14
0
12 18% 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990 2010

10
Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge
8 National Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Oak Ridge,
14% Tenn., United States.
6 82%
4
Key point: Since 1870, CO2 emissions from fuel com-
86% bustion have risen exponentially.
2

0 Growing world energy demand from fossil fuels plays

1971 2011
a key role in the upward trend in CO2 emissions
Fossil Non f ossil (Figure 3). Since the Industrial Revolution, annual
* World primary energy supply includes international bunkers. CO2 emissions from fuel combustion dramatically
Key point: Fossil fuels still account for most – over increased from near zero to over 31 GtCO2 in 2011.
80% – of the world energy supply. The next section provides a brief overview of recent
Despite the growth of non-fossil energy (such as nu- trends in energy-related CO2 emissions, as well as in
clear and hydropower), considered as non-emitting,3 some of the socio-economic drivers of emissions.

1. The energy sector includes emissions from “fuel combustion” (the

large majority) and “fugitive emissions”, which are intentional or Recent emissions trends
unintentional releases of gases resulting from production, processes,
transmission, storage and use of fuels (e.g. CH4 emissions from coal
mining). In 2011, global CO2 emissions were 31.3 GtCO2. In
2. The Annex I Parties to the 1992 UN Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) are: Australia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium,
line with the average annual growth rate since 2000,
Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, emissions rose by 2.7% in one year, two percentage
European Economic Community, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, points less than in 2010, year of initial recovery after
Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, the Netherlands, New the financial crisis.
Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, the
Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, While emissions in non-Annex I countries continued
Ukraine, United Kingdom and United States. See www.unfccc.int. For to increase rapidly (5.8%), emissions in Annex I
country coverage of Annex I Economies in Transition (EIT) and
Annex II, see Geographical Coverage. countries decreased by 0.8%. In absolute terms, global
3. Excluding the life cycle of all non-emitting sources and excluding CO2 emissions increased by 0.8 GtCO2 in 2011,
combustion of biofuels (considered as non-emitting CO2, based on the
© IEA/OECD, 2013

assumption that the released carbon will be reabsorbed by biomass re-

driven by the 0.7GtCO2 increase of coal emissions in
growth, under balanced conditions). non-Annex I countries (Figure 4).

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition) - xv

Figure 4. Change in CO2 emissions (2010-11) Figure 5. World primary energy supply and
CO2 emissions: shares by fuel in 2011
MtCO2
1000 Percent share

800

600 TPES 32% 29% 21% 18%

400

82%
200

CO2
CO
CO 35% 44% 20% 1%
0 2 2

-200
Coal Oil Gas Other Total
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Annex I Non-Annex I
Oil Coal Gas Other*
Key point: In 2011, coal drove a significant emissions * Other includes nuclear, hydro, geothermal, solar, tide, wind,
increase in non-Annex I countries, while Annex I biofuels and waste.
countries slightly decreased their emissions.
Key point: Globally, coal combustion generates the
Early indications suggest that in 2012 CO2 emissions largest share of CO2 emissions, although oil has the
continued to decline in the group of OECD countries, largest share in energy supply.
more than offset by a rapid increase in non-OECD
Those shares evolved significantly during the last
countries. According to the same indications, total
decade, following ten years of rather stable relative
energy-related CO2 emissions increased by about 1%.
contributions among fuels. In 2001 in fact, the largest
For the medium term, in its New Policies Scenario, emissions share was still due to oil (42%), several
the World Energy Outlook (WEO 2013)4 projects that percentage points ahead of coal (Figure 6).
global CO2 emissions from fuel combustion continue
Figure 6. Fuel shares in global CO2 emissions
to grow unabated, albeit at a lower rate, reaching
37.2 GtCO2 by 2035. This is an improvement over the 60%
WEO Current Policies Scenario, but still leads to a
long-term temperature increase of 3.6°C, well above 50%
the 2°C target agreed by the Parties to the UNFCCC.
40%

Emissions by fuel
30%
Although coal represented 29% of the world TPES in
2011, it accounted for 44% of the global CO2 emis- 20%
sions due to its heavy carbon content per unit of en-
10%
ergy released, and to the fact that 18% of the TPES 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011
derives from carbon-neutral fuels (Figure 5). As
compared to gas, coal is nearly twice as emission Coal Oil Gas

intensive on average.5 Key point: The fossil fuel mix changed significantly in
the last 10 years, with a rapid growth of coal as the
largest source of CO2 emissions.
4. Unless otherwise specified, projections from the World Energy
Outlook refer to the New Policies Scenario from the 2013 edition. This In 2011, CO2 emissions from the combustion of coal
scenario takes account of the broad policy commitments and plans that increased by 4.9% to 13.7 GtCO2. Currently, coal fills
have been announced by countries around the world, including national much of the growing energy demand of those devel-
pledges to reduce GHG emissions and plans to phase out fossil-energy
subsidies – even where the measures to implement these commitments oping countries (such as China and India) where en-
have yet to be identified or announced. These commitments are as- ergy-intensive industrial production is growing
sumed to be implemented in a relatively cautious manner, reflecting rapidly and large coal reserves exist with limited re-
their non-binding character and, in many cases, the uncertainty sur-
rounding how they are to be put into effect. serves of other energy sources.
© IEA/OECD, 2013

5. IPCC default carbon emission factors from the 1996 IPCC

Guidelines: 15.3 tC/TJ for gas, 16.8 to 27.5 tC/TJ for oil products, 25.8
Without additional abatement measures, beyond those
to 29.1 tC/TJ for primary coal products. already adopted or under discussion, the WEO 2013

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

xvi - CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition)

projects that emissions from coal will grow to Figure 7. Change in CO2 emissions by region
15.7 GtCO2 in 2035. However, adopting a pathway (2010-11)
towards limiting the long-term temperature increase to % change
2°C as in the WEO 2013 450 Scenario – through use of World
more efficient plants and end-use technologies as well
as increased use of renewables, nuclear and carbon cap-
China *
ture and storage (CCS) technologies – could see coal
Other
consumption drop and CO2 emissions from coal re-
duced to 5.7 Gt by 2035. Intl. aviation bunkers
Middle East
CO2 emissions from oil rose to 11.1 GtCO2 in 2011, Annex I EIT
an increase of 0.6%. WEO 2013 projects that emis-
Annex II Asia Oceania
sions from oil will grow to 12.5 GtCO2 in 2035, prin-
Asia excluding China
cipally due to increased transport demand.
Latin America
Emissions of CO2 from gas were 6.3 GtCO2 in 2011, Intl. marine bunkers
1.7% higher than in the previous year. Again, the Africa
WEO 2013 projects emissions from gas will continue
Annex II North America
to grow, rising to 9.1 GtCO2 in 2035.
Annex II Europe

Emissions by region -6% -4% -2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%

* China includes Hong Kong.
Non-Annex I countries, collectively, represented 54%
of global CO2 emissions in 2011. At the regional Key point: Annex II Europe and North America de-
level, annual growth rates varied greatly: on the one creased their emissions in 2011; all other regions
hand, emissions in China grew strongly (9.7%), while increased, with China showing the largest trend.
on the other hand, emissions in Annex II countries
decreased (-2.4% in North America and -4.3% in Figure 8. Top 10 emitting countries in 2011
Europe). Other regions, like the Middle East, Annex II GtCO2
Asia Oceania, Asia and Latin America6, experienced
0 2 4 6 8
moderate growth (2% to 4%), while emissions in
Africa remained stable (Figure 7). China

Regional differences in contributions to global emis- United States

sions conceal even larger differences among individ- India

ual countries. Nearly two-thirds of global emissions
Russian Federation
for 2011 originated from just ten countries, with the
shares of China (25.4%) and the United States Japan
(16.9%) far surpassing those of all others. Combined,
Germany
these two countries alone produced 13.2 GtCO2. The
top-10 emitting countries include five Annex I coun- Korea
tries and five non-Annex I countries, with the entry in Canada
2011 of Saudi Arabia displacing the United Kingdom
Islamic Republic of Iran
from the group (Figure 8). Top 10 total: 20.7 GtCO2
World total: 31.3 GtCO2
Saudi Arabia
As different regions and countries have contrasting
economic and social structures, the picture would
change significantly when moving from absolute Key point: The top 10 emitting countries account for
emissions to indicators such as emissions per capita or two-thirds of the world CO2 emissions.
per GDP. A more comprehensive analysis is given in
the section Coupling emissions with socio-economic Emissions by sector
indicators later in this chapter.
Two sectors produced nearly two-thirds of global CO2
emissions in 2011: electricity and heat generation, by
© IEA/OECD, 2013

far the largest, accounted for 42%, while transport

6. For the purposes of this discussion, Latin America includes non-
OECD Americas and Chile. accounted for 22% (Figure 9).

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition) - xvii

Figure 9. World CO2 emissions by sector in 2011 Figure 10. CO2 emissions from electricity
and heat generation*
Residential
6% Transport GtCO2
Other * 1%
9% 14

Industry 12
18%
Industry Other
Electricity and 10
21%
heat 42% Residential
11% 8 Gas

Transport Other * Oil

6
22% 12%
Coal
4

Note: Also shows allocation of electricity and heat to end-use 2

sectors.
0
* Other includes commercial/public services, agriculture/forestry,
1990 2011
fishing, energy industries other than electricity and heat genera-
tion, and other emissions not specified elsewhere. * Refers to main activity producers and autoproducers of
electricity and heat.
Key point: Two sectors combined, generation of elec-
tricity and heat and transport, represented nearly Key point: CO2 emissions from electricity and heat
two-thirds of global emissions in 2011. almost doubled between 1990 and 2011, driven by the
large increase of generation from coal.
Generation of electricity and heat worldwide relies
heavily on coal, the most carbon-intensive fossil fuel. As for transport, the fast emissions growth was driven
Countries such as Australia, China, India, Poland and by emissions from the road sector, which increased by
South Africa produce over two-thirds of their electric- 52% since 1990 and accounted for about three quarters
ity and heat through the combustion of coal. of transport emissions in 2011 (Figure 11). It is inter-
esting to note that despite efforts to limit emissions
Between 2010 and 2011, CO2 emissions from electric- from international transport, emissions from marine
ity and heat increased by 4.4%, faster than total emis- and aviation bunkers, both about 80% higher in 2011
sions. While the share of oil in electricity and heat than in 1990, grew even faster than those from road.
emissions has declined steadily since 1990, the share
of gas increased slightly, and the share of coal in- Figure 11. CO2 emissions from transport
creased significantly, from 66% in 1990 to 72% in GtCO2
2011 (Figure 10). Carbon intensity developments for 8
this sector will strongly depend on the fuel mix used to
7
generate electricity, including the share of non-emitting Aviation bunkers
sources, such as renewables and nuclear, as well as on 6
Marine bunkers
the potential penetration of CCS technologies. 5
Other transport
By 2035, the WEO 2013 projects that demand for 4
electricity will be almost 70% higher than current de- 3 Domestic aviation
mand, driven by rapid growth in population and in-
2 Domestic navigation
come in developing countries, by the continuing
increase in the number of electrical devices used in 1
Road
homes and commercial buildings, and by the growth 0
in electrically driven industrial processes. Meanwhile, 1990 2011

renewables-based electricity generation is expected to Key point: CO2 emissions from road are driving the
continue growing over the next 25 years, benefiting growth of transport emissions.
from government support, declining investment costs
and rising fossil-fuel prices. Under the three Global demand for transport appears unlikely to de-
WEO 2013 scenarios, the share of renewables in total crease in the foreseeable future; the WEO 2013
electricity generation rises from 20% in 2011 to 25% projects that transport fuel demand will grow by
© IEA/OECD, 2013

(Current Policies), 31% (New Policies) and 48% nearly 40% by 2035. To limit emissions from this
(450 Scenario). sector, policy makers should implement measures to

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

xviii - CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2013 Edition)

encourage or require improved vehicle efficiency, as China to 17 tCO2 for the United States. On average,
the United States has recently done and the European industrialised countries emit far larger amounts of CO2
Union is currently doing as a follow-up to the voluntary per capita than developing countries. The lowest levels
agreements. Policies that encourage a shift from cars worldwide were those of the Asian and African region.
to public transportation and to lower-emission modes
of transportation can also help. Finally, policies can Figure 12. CO2 emissions per capita
encourage a shift to new, preferably low-carbon fuels. by major world regions
These include electricity (e.g. electric and plug-in hybrid tCO2 per capita
vehicles), hydrogen (e.g. through the introduction of
fuel cell vehicles) and greater use of biofuels (e.g. as a World

blend in gasoline and diesel fuel). To avoid a rebound

in transport fuel demand, these moves must also be Annex II North America
backed up by emissions pricing or fuel excise policies. Annex II Asia Oceania
Annex I EIT
These policies would both reduce the environmental
impact of transport and help to secure domestic fuel Middle East

supplies, which are sometimes unsettled (e.g. by the Annex II Europe

threat of supply disruptions, whether from natural China *
disasters, accidents or the geopolitics of oil trade). As Other
these policies will ease demand growth, they could Latin America
also help keep oil prices below the increases projected Asia excluding China
in a business-as-usual scenario. Africa

Across all sectors, the opportunities of the “hidden” 0 5 10 15 20

fuel of energy efficiency are many and rich. For ex- 2011 1990
ample, the IEA7 shows that in 25 policy steps, coun- * China includes Hong Kong.
tries could save USD 1 trillion in annual energy costs
as well as deliver incalculable security benefits in Key point: Emissions per capita vary greatly around
terms of energy supply and environmental protection. the world, with Annex II North America far ahead of
Globally, apart from reducing both consumption and other regions.
CO2 emissions, energy efficiency could help countries
Figure 13. CO2 emissions per GDP*
maximise economic potential and social welfare and
by major world regions
mitigate insecurity from stretched energy resources.
kgCO2 per USD
Coupling emissions with socio-economic World
indicators8
Indicators such as those briefly discussed in this sec- China **
tion strongly reflect energy constraints and choices Annex I EIT
made to support the economic activities of each coun- Middle East
try. They also reflect sectors that predominate in dif- Other
ferent countries’ economies. Asia excluding China
The range of per-capita emission levels across the Annex II North America
world is very large, highlighting wide divergences in Africa
the way different countries and regions use energy Annex II Asia Oceania
(Figure 12). For example, among the five largest emit- Latin America
ters, the levels of per-capita emissions were very di- Annex II Europe
verse, ranging from 1 tCO2 for India and 6 tCO2 for
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8

2011 1990

7. See 25 Energy Efficiency Policy Recommendations, IEA (2011)

* GDP in 2005 USD, using purchasing power parities.
and World Energy Outlook, IEA (2012).
8. No single indicator can provide a complete picture of a country’s ** China includes Hong Kong.
© IEA/OECD, 2013

CO2 emissions performance or its relative capacity to reduce emissions.

The indicators discussed here are certainly incomplete and should only Key point: Emission intensities in economic terms
be used to provide a rough indication of the situation in a country. vary greatly around the world.

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

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