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A Companion to the Hanseatic League
 Brill’s Companions
to European History

VOLUME 8

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/bceh

A Companion to the
Hanseatic League

Edited by

Donald J. Harreld

LEIDEN | BOSTON
Cover illustration: Town seal of Lübeck, 1280, as depicted in Ernst Wallis’ Illustrerad verldshistoria,
(Stockholm 1882, p. 333). http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stadssigill_foer_staden_Luebeck.png
(accessed 4 September 2014)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A companion to the Hanseatic League / edited by Donald J. Harreld.

pages cm. — (Brill’s companions to European history, ISSN 2212-7410; volume 8)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-90-04-28288-9 (hardback : acid-free paper) — ISBN 978-90-04-28476-0 (e-book) 1. Hanseatic
League—History. 2. Hansa towns—History. 3. Europe, Northern—Social conditions. 4. Europe, Northern—
Economic conditions. 5. Europe, Northern—Commerce—History. I. Harreld, Donald J.

DD801.H22C66 2015
382.0943—dc23
2014044089

This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering
Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more
information, please see www.brill.com/brill-typeface.

issn 2212-7410
isbn 978-90-04-28288-9 (hardback)
isbn 978-90-04-28476-0 (e-book)

Copyright 2015 by Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands.

Koninklijke Brill nv incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff and Hotei Publishing.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
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Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill nv provided
that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive,
Suite 910, Danvers, ma 01923, usa. Fees are subject to change.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Contents

List of Maps and Figures vi

List of Contributors vii

Introduction 1
Donald J. Harreld

Part 1
General Hanse History

1 The Early Hansas 15

Rolf Hammel-Kiesow

2 The ‘Golden Age’ of the Hanseatic League 64

Jürgen Sarnowsky

3 The Hanseatic League in the Early Modern Period 101

Michael North

Part 2
Themes in Hanse History

4 Kontors and Outposts 127

Mike Burkhardt

5 Social Networks 162

Ulf Christian Ewert and Stephan Selzer

6 The Baltic Trade 194

Carsten Jahnke

Bibliography 241
Index 274
List of Maps and Figures

map caption

0.1 The Baltic region 11

0.2 The North Sea region 12

figure caption

5.1 Network of Guardians in Early Fifteenth Century Lübeck 173

5.2 Structure and Stabilization of Commercial Networks 183
5.3 The Family Network of Hildebrand Veckinchusen 184
5.4 Game Theoretical Analysis of Hanseatic Reciprocal Trade 188
6.1 Export of Amber to the West 209
6.2 Proceeds of the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order in the sale of
amber 211
6.3 Floated wood on the Vistula River 225
6.4 Production and Export of Slovakian Copper 230
6.5 Swedish copper-export 231

table caption

3.1 Danzig Sea Commerce 1460–1583 (Number of ships that called at

or departed from Danzig) 102
6.1 The import of Scanian herring in the harbor of Lübeck in
Rostocker Barrel 214
6.2 Import of wax in English harbors between 1303 and 1311 219
6.3 Ash transported on the Vistula River 226
6.4 Tar and pitch transported on the Vistula River 227
6.5 Copper trade in the Baltic, noted in the Custom Lists 227
List of Contributors

Mike Burkhardt
is the author of Der Bergenhandel im Spätmittelalter: Handel, Kaufleute,
Netzwerke (Colonge, 2009).

Ulf Christian Erwert

has taught medieval and economic history at Chemnitz University of
Technology, Helmut-Schmidt-University Hamburg, Free University of
Berlin and the universities of Munich, Regensburg, Halle and Münster. He
is the author of numerous articles on the Hanse, the Portuguese overseas
expansion, the political economy of pre-modern princely courts and early
modern living standards.

Rolf Hammel-Kiesow
is the associate director of the Archives of Lübeck and an honorary professor
at the University of Kiel. He is the author of many works on the history of the
Hanse. Since 1994 he has been a member of the Executive Board, and since
2010, the Chairman of the Hansischer Geschichtsverein.

Donald J. Harreld
is Associate Professor and Chair of History at Brigham Young University. He is
the author of High Germans in the Low Countries: German Merchants and
Commerce in Golden Age Antwerp (Leiden, 2004).

Carsten Jahnke
is Associate Professor for Medieval History at the SAXO-Institute, University
Copenhagen. He is the author of many works on the history of the Hanse and
the history of the Baltic area.

Michael North
is Professor and Chair of Modern History at the University of Greifswald,
Honorary Doctor of the University of Tartu and Director of the International
Graduate Program “Baltic Borderlands”. His recent books include The
Expansion of Europe, 1250–1500 (Manchester 2012) and The Baltic: a History
(Cambridge, Mass. 2015).
viii list of contributors

Jürgen Sarnowsky
is Professor of Medieval History at Universitaet Hamburg. He is a board
member for the Hansischer Geschichtsverein, and is the author of numerous
articles on Hanse history and more general medieval history topics.

Stephan Selzer
is professor of medieval history at Helmut-Schmidt-Universität / Universität
der Bundeswehr in Hamburg. Selzer is the author of many publications
on social and economic history including Die mittelalterliche Hanse,
(Darmstadt 2010).
Introduction
Donald J. Harreld

In Spring, 1870, the city of Stralsund celebrated the 500-year anniversary of the
“Peace” that bears its name that ended the war between the Hanseatic League
and the Kingdom of Denmark. The Peace of Stralsund is generally considered
to mark the zenith of Hanse commercial power.1 One result of this celebra-
tion was the founding of the Hansische Geschichtsverein, organized to pro-
mote Hanse history and to connect Hanseatic studies to the broader German
historiography.2 Thanks in part to the publication agenda of the Hansische
Geschichtsverein, Hanse studies have flourished since the association’s orga-
nization. The Hansische Geschichtsblätter, the Hanserecesse, the Pfingstblätter,
to name only a few of the series published by the association have provided
generations of scholars an outlet for serious scholarship on the Hanse.
The earliest scholars involved in the Hansische Geschichtsverein were, not
surprisingly, local historians and archivists located in the principal hanseatic
towns of northern Germany. In the early years, most of the works published
in the Hansische Geschichtsblätter slanted heavily toward political and diplo-
matic history topics and were fitted into the emerging nationalist histories of
a newly formed Germany. Of course his trend in historical scholarship was not
unique to German history. Late nineteenth-century national histories included
measurable doses of political propaganda in even the best cases.
By the early twentieth century, however, Hanse history had come into its
own, and the focus of Hanse studies began to include social and economic
history topics much more than they had in the preceding decades. One only
need to review the list of the luminaries working in the field of Hanse history
since the first part of the twentieth century to quickly realize that Hanse his-
tory had moved from the realm of political history and antiquarian studies to a
field intensely interested in economic and social issues. Indeed, for a half cen-
tury, the widely read work by Ernst Daenell set the bar in Hanse scholarship.3
Daenell’s massive two-volume work depicted the Hanse as a type of commer-
cial republic founded on economic power. But more than that, his work was

1 Philippe Dollinger, The German Hansa (Stanford: Standford University Press, 1970), 71.
2 Wilhelm Mantels, “Der Hansische Geschichtsverein,” Hanische Geschichtsblätter 1 (1871): 3.
3 Ernst Daenell, Die Blütezeit der deutschen Hanse von der zweiten Hälfte des 14. Bis zum letzten
Viertel des 15. Jahrhunderts (Berlin: Reimer, 1905/1906).

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���5 | doi ��.��63/9789004284760_002

2 Harreld

meticulously detailed to the point of serving as a reference manual for later

scholars.
Several contemporaries, Rudolf Häpke, Fritz Rörig, and Walther Vogel,
among others, formed what might be considered the next generation of Hanse
historians. Rudolf Häpke’s most well know contributions to Hanse history
focused on the league’s presence in the Low Countries, and particularly in
Bruges, which was the topic of his dissertation.4 Fritz Rörig, an expert on the
history of Lübeck and the Hanse more broadly,5 was particularly interested in
the Hanse towns. His best know work in English, The Medieval Town, is a trans-
lation of the book Die Europaïsche Stadt im Mittelalter.6 In it, Rörig examines
the reasons for he saw as the decline of the Hanse towns’ due to Dutch and
English competition. While Rörig was most interested in the Hanse towns, his
sometime collaborator, Walther Vogel focused on Hanse ships and shipping.
Vogel’s work, Geschichte de deutschen Seeschiffahrt, continued to be influential
for researchers for decades after its publication.7
Following the Second World War, political overtones infused Hanse scholar-
ship particularly as Marxist scholars attempted to fit Hanse history into their
theoretical framework,8 but scholars’ understanding of the character of the
Hanse began to undergo significant change in other ways as well. One of the
best-known attempts at writing a general history of the Hanse in the decade or
so following the war was Karl Pagel’s Die Hanse, which perpetuated the notion
that the Hanse acted as a homogenous body and a powerful arm of the Holy
Roman Empire.9 Pagel had missed the mark according to many of the scholars
of the time, including Ahasver von Brandt who set out to refute Pagel’s charac-
terization of the Hanse cities as a medieval power bloc.10 It was, in effect, von
Brandt who soon set a new tone for Hanse scholarship with his characteriza-

4 Rudolf Häpke, Brügges, Entwicklung zum mittelalterlichen Weltmarkt (Berlin: Curtius,

1908). See also, Rudolf Häpke, ed., Niederländische Akten und Urkunden zur Geschichte der
Hanse und zur deutschen Seegeschichte (Munich: Duncker & Humblot, 1913).
5  See for example, Fritz Rörig, Der Markt von Lübeck: Topographisch-statistische
Untersuchengen zur deutschen Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte (Leipzig: Quelle &
Meyer, 1922).
6 Fritz Rörig, Die Europaïsche Stadt im Mittelalter (Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht,
1955).
7 Walther Vogel, Geschichte der deutschen Seeschiffahrt (Berlin: Reimer, 1915).
8 Andreas Dorpalen, German History in Marxist Perspective: the East German approach
(London: Taurus, 1986), 97.
9 Karl Pagel, Die Hanse (Brunswick: Georg Westermann Verlag, 1952).
10 Ahasver von Brandt, Die Hanse und die nordischen Mächte im Mittelalter (Opladen:
Westdeutscher Verlag, 1962).
Introduction 3

tion of the Hanse as dynamic and pliable organization.11 For time being, how-
ever, Hanse history remained largely the concern of German historians until
the 1960s with the publication of Dollinger’s survey.12
Philippe Dollinger was a student of both Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre at
the University of Strasbourg, where he spent almost his entire career. His book,
The German Hansa, broke new ground when it was published over forty years
ago. It was groundbreaking not because it presented anything particularly new
about Hanse history—it was a survey after all, and had its share of errors—
but because it freed the study of the Hanse from the fetters of regional and
national histories and from the often politicized histories written since the
Second World War. This is not to suggest that in the decades prior to Dollinger’s
book there was nothing particularly interesting happening in the field of Hanse
history—quite the contrary, as I have pointed out—but it presented the first
successful unified Hanse history accessible to a broad international readership
by a non-German author.
The publication of Dollinger’s book solidified the ongoing scholarly move-
ment that placed Hanse history in an international context, and one that
was no longer strictly dominated by German scholars. It still remains one of
the most widely read books on Hanse history in English. Indeed, aside from
Dollinger’s, T.H. Lloyd’s book, England and the German Hanse,13 may be the
best-known book on the Hanse available in the English language. But this is
not to say that scholars writing in English have failed to engage with and con-
tribute to Hanse scholarship. Quite the contrary; far more scholarship on the
Hanse is being produced in English than ever before.14
A variety of scholars during the past twenty or so years have re-examined
some of the older concerns of Hanse scholars and have refined previous
conclusions and have opened up new avenues of research. For example, fol-
lowing the lead of von Brandt decades earlier, Ernst Pitz took up the constitu-
tional issue again late in his career and reinforced the diffuse nature of Hanse

11 Ahasver von Brandt, “Die Hanse als mittelalterliche Wirtschaftsorganisation,” in A. v.

Brandt, et al., eds., Die Hanse als mittelalterliche Wirtschaftsorganisation (Cologne: vs
Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 1963), 9–37.
12 Philippe Dollinger, La Hanse (xiie–xviie Siècles) (Paris: Aubier, Éditions Montaigne, 1964).
The book was subsequently published in German in 1966 and in English in 1970.
13 T.H. Lloyd, England and the German Hanse, 1157–1611: A study of their trade and commercial
diplomacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
14 Most recently see, Justyna Wubs-Mrozewicz and Stuart Jenks, eds., The Hanse in Medieval
and Early Modern Europe (Leiden: Brill, 2013).
4 Harreld

governance.15 Volker Henn’s work on communications between and among

the Hansards and his research on their regional interests has given Hanse
scholars a new direction for research.16 Indeed, many different methodologi-
cal approaches have been applied to the history of the Hanse. For scholars of
the new institutional economics, the Hanse has been extensively held up as an
example of the process of organizational and institutional change.17 Sheilagh
Ogilvie, for example, has made extensive use of the explanatory power of the
Hanse in her recent work on medieval institutions.18 The principles of the new
institutional economics has been applied directly to the case of Hanse town
governance,19 the development and function of transnational markets,20 and
in conflict resolution,21 to name only some of the most recent examples.
Place theories and network theories have been an important influence on a
variety of scholarly pursuits,22 and have provided a fruitful direction for Hanse
research, as the recent work of Ulrich Müller attests.23 And recently, social

15 Ernst Pitz, Bürgereinung und Städteeinung. Studien zur Verfassungsgeschichte der

Hansestädte und der deutschen Hanse. Quellen und Darstellungen zur hansischen
Geschichte (Cologne: Böhlau, 2001).
16 Volker Henn, “Innerhansische Kommunikations- und Raumstrukturen: Umrisse einer
neueren Forschungsaufgabe?” in Stuart Jenks and Michael North, eds., Der hansische
Sonderweg? Beiträge zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Hanse (Cologne: Böhlau,
1993), 255–268 and also “Was war die Hanse?” in Jörgen Bracker, Volker Henn and Rainer
Postel, eds., Die Hanse. Lebenswirklichkeit und Mythos (Lübeck: Schmidt-Römhild, 1998),
14–23.
17 Avner Greif, Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 105.
18 Sheilagh Ogilvie, Institutions and European Trade: Merchant Guilds, 1000–1800 (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2011).
19 Kaire Põder, “Credible Commitment and Cartel: The Case of the Hansa Merchant in the
Guild of Late Medieval Tallinn,” Baltic Journal of Economics 10 (2010): 43–60.
20 Sigrid Quack, “Global Markets in Theory and History: Towards a Comparative Analysis,”
in Jens Beckert and Christoph Deutschmann, eds., Wirtschaftssoziologie. Kölner
Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsyshologie, Vol. 49 (Wiesbaden: vs Verlag für
Sozialwissenschaften, 2009).
21 Albrecht Cordes, “Merchant’s expectations regarding procedure before foreign courts
according to Hanseatic priviledges (12th–16th Centuries),” loewe Research Focus
“Extrajusdicial and Judicial Conflict Resolution” Working Paper, no. 4, 2013.
22 For example, Ulrich Müller, “Networks of Towns—Networks of Periphery? Some Relations
between the North European Medieval Town and its Hinterland,” in Sunhild Kleingärtner
and Gabriel Zeilinger, eds., Raumbildung durch Netzwerke? (Bonn: Habelt, 2012).
23 Ulrich Müller, “Case Study 3: Trading centre—Hanseatic towns on the southern Baltic
Coast: Structural continuity or a new start?” in Babette Ludowici, et al., eds., Trade and
Communication Networks of the First Millennium ad in the northern part of Central Europe:
Introduction 5

network analysis has become of particular interest for scholars of the Hanse
because of its ambiguous structure and the increasingly clear importance
of merchant relationships in its function.24 Indeed, network analysis figures
prominently in the works presented in this volume, particularly the contribu-
tion by Ewert and Selzer, who have been instrumental in defining the field of
network analysis in Hanse studies.
This present work is an attempt to bring some of the more recent develop-
ments in Hanse history together for an international audience of scholars and
students for whom the German language presents some difficulty. Rather than
a critique of past scholarship, or a foray into the “cutting edge”, this book is
intended to represent the “state-of-the-field” in Hanse history. In addition to
the essays, this volume contains a bibliography that includes the works cited
in the text as well as important works of scholarship on Hanse history broadly
conceived.
This volume is presented in two sections. The first section presents a nar-
rative of Hanse history from earliest times (Hammel-Kiesow), through the
Hanse’s Golden Age (Sarnowsky), and ending with the late Hanse period
(North). As with any attempts at periodization, the chronological dividing
lines between these three chapters are somewhat arbitrary. As a general rule,
the Peace of Stralsund in 1370 was marked as the beginning of the Golden
Age, and the Peace of Utrecht in 1474 was the most useful date for the start of
the later period. The three authors were not held strictly to this admittedly
arbitrary division, but for the most part honored this periodization scheme.
The contributions in the second section deal with topics of particular interest
in recent scholarship: a separate chapter on the Baltic trade (Janke), one that
explains the structures of kontors and outposts (Burkhardt), and finally, one
on social networks (Ewert and Selzer). The goal for this volume is to present a
solid treatment of current Hanse scholarship in English, rather than to attempt
any kind of exhaustive survey.
In the first chapter, “The Early Hanses,” Rolf Hammel-Kiesow exam-
ines the earliest evidences for German trade associations in the Baltic and
North Sea. Building on a tradition of settlement archaeology methodologies,

Central Places, Beach Markets, Landing Places and Trading Centres (Stuttgart: Konrad
Theiss Verlag, 2010).
24 Justyna Wubs-Mrozewicz, Traders, Ties and Tensions: The Interaction of Lübeckers,
Overijsslers and Hollanders in Late Medieval Bergen (Hilversum: Verloren, 2008), 29; see
also: Justyna Wubs-Mrozewicz, “Rules of Inclusion, Rules of Exculsion: The Hanseatic
Kontor in Bergan in the Late Middle Ages and its Normative Boundaries,” German History
29 (2011): 2–4.
6 Harreld

Hammel-Kiesow also employs a version of the world system approach to

explain shifts in trade flows. First, by examining coin hoard evidence, Hammel-
Kiesow shows the development of trade routes that connected the two main
regions that would become commercially important for Hanse merchants.
Early German merchant communities operated in Schleswig from which west
and central European and Baltic trades radiated. By the end of the eleventh
century, merchants settled at Lübeck in the Baltic region and in the city of
Cologne in the North Sea region. Second, Hammel-Kiesow situates German
settlement in the Baltic along with the advance of conquest and conversion.
Following these developments, German merchants began a process of settle-
ment eastward into the Baltic region. Germans eventually became enmeshed
in the commercial relations of Scandinavia, Prussia, and farther east.
Also of great importance for this earliest phase of Hanse development was
the shift from traveling trade associations to the eventual development of
Hanse Kontor between about the twelfth to the fourteenth century. The travel-
ing associations had obvious commercial benefits for merchants, and they also
facilitated social functions. Eventually, German merchants, influenced by con-
tact with Italians, developed a system of fixed main office, freight carriers, and
on-site factors. In spite of its more settled nature, this system was still transi-
tory until the development of kontors (early in the fourteenth century) created
a more permanent institutional arrangement.
In chapter 2, “The ‘Golden Age’ of the Hanseatic League,” Jürgen Sarnowsky,
traces the progress of united action on the part of Hanse towns that resulted
in large part as a result of the problems that arose in Flanders in the mid-
fourteenth century and most particularly following the Peace of Stralsund in
1370. Indeed, because of its success in presenting a unified front, the Hanse
began to exert considerable economic and political influence in Northern
Europe in the second half of the fourteenth century. Though its war with
Denmark threatened to hamper commercial stability, the Hanse’s suc-
cess in the war put it in a particularly strong position following the Peace of
Stralsund (1370).
Sarnowsky points out, however, that in the years following the Peace,
upheaval within the Hanse towns, particularly in Lübeck, threatened the sta-
bility of the Hanse. Only after the constitutional crises were resolved in the
Wendish towns could the Hanse solidify its strength and face the many outside
threats. After about 1418, it was the various territorial lords that posed the great-
est threat to Hanse autonomy and resulted in greater cooperation between the
towns. So, in spite of the periods of unity that followed the Peace of Stralsund
and again later around 1418, the Hanse experienced significant periods of crisis
Introduction 7

that forces Sarnowsky to call into question the characterization of this period
as a “golden age” for the Hanseatic League in spite of the towns’ commercial
success. The towns continued to push for autonomy and instances of Hanse
“unity” tended to be for limited periods of time.
The winds of trade were shifting following the Treaty of Utrecht in 1474, as
Michael North highlights in his chapter on the Hanse in the early modern period
(chapter 3). Dutch competition and the rise of the Southern German merchants
from Nuremburg and Augsburg altered much of the trade in northern Europe
as did the success of the Livonian towns in the East. By the early decades of the
sixteenth century, political power in the Hanse towns was also shifting as the
effects of the Reformation were increasingly felt, and Denmark began to exert
greater power in the Baltic. The composition of the ruling groups in Hanse cit-
ies changed as Protestants gained power. And in spite of Lübeck’s support in his
succession conflict, Danish King Frederick i refused to expel the Dutch from the
Baltic thwarting the Hanse’s attempts at domination in the region.
The Hanseatic League became steadily less relevant during the Thirty Years
War, and by the last Hanse Diet (1669) had contracted to the point that only
Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck were much interested in continuing to claim
its privileges. It is surprising that the three cities were able to maintain their
Hanseatic identity until the early years of the nineteenth century.
The second section of the book looks more closely at three important
themes in Hanse history: Kontors and Outposts, Social Networks, and the
Baltic Trade. There were any number of themes that could have been high-
lighted in this section; the choice of these three topics simply reflects the very
good work being done recently by these scholars. Each of these topics is worthy
of a book-length study in its own right, and they seemed particularly appropri-
ate for a “state-of-the-field” treatment that this volume attempts to present.
In the chapter on “Kontors and Outposts,” Burkhardt, very much influenced
by network theory, looks in much greater detail at the institution that formed
an important point of discussion in the earlier chapters. This chapter focuses
on the important reasons that Hanse merchants grouped together while
abroad and the benefits that accrued from fixed associations at the “junctions”
of their trade networks. Indeed, in Burkhardt’s view security was the single
most important reason for the development of the Hanse’s principle kontors.
On the face of things, and from an organizational perspective, it was negoti-
ating and maintaining privileges in foreign ports that were the core function
of the kontors. But security for the merchant and his goods was likely what
brought Hanse merchants together and kept the kontors functioning over the
long haul.
8 Harreld

Burkhardt situates the organization of the kontors within the context of a

medieval corporate body. In this regard, kontors would have been familiar to
both the Hanse merchants and the officials of the towns in which they were
located. The kontor does not, therefore, represent a “completely new organiza-
tional structure,” rather it was one that developed over a long period of time.
One important aspect of long-term development for Hanse merchants was
the many regulations instituted in the kontors that were intended to regulate
trade within the kontor and between Hanse merchants.
Although the kontors were set up as enclaves where merchants could live
and work with others from Hanse towns, Burkhardt describes life in the kontor
as very hard for the residents who were not full-fledged merchants. According
to Burkhardt, the male-dominated kontors, where merchants, assistants, and
boys (placed with a merchant to obtain an education) created a community
that was, indeed, different from home. The boys were subjected to often-
violent rites of passage and were occupied with menial tasks. Assistants, in
spite of their status that allowed them more freedom than the boys, were very
much under the merchants’ authority—though beatings were not allow once
a boy became an assistant. Even most of the merchants living at the kontors
were junior partners, which meant that they were beholden to the wishes of
the “home office.”
Nevertheless, virtually all of the daily work at the kontors was geared toward
trade and the maintenance of regulations and relationships that continued to
insure commercial security. As a result, the kontors also served a political func-
tion for the Hanse towns. The kontors were in a particularly good position to
disrupt trade if necessary. Boycotts, embargoes, and blockades were especially
successful during the height of Hanse commercial power in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries. This was, however, a two-edged sword, as rulers could
just as easily close down Hanse kontors when it suited them.
Outposts also served Hanse merchants in various parts of the North Sea
and the Baltic on a temporary basis. Unlike the four kontors, outposts were
much smaller and were usually open only seasonally. Burkardt suggests that
there may have been as many as 50 Hanse outposts, including some on the
Atlantic coast of France, and in Lisbon. The use of the outposts was tied to
the trade in a specific commodity, for example salt along the Atlantic coast, or
Herring in the North Sea.
Although the kontors and outposts served a variety of functions, they figured
also in the construction of social networks, which is the topic Ulf Christian
Ewert and Stephan Selzer take up in Chapter 5. After explaining the theory
and methodology of social networks, Ewert and Selzer trace the population
Introduction 9

movements of the High Middle Ages that brought large numbers of Germans
to the Baltic regions. The newly settled Germans maintained connections
with their relatives in the west, which was the foundation for an extensive
kin-network. Kin-networks were important not only for commercial dealings,
but they also had a profound effect on the political relations between Hanse
towns. Indeed, as Ewert and Selzer point out, these family ties and the affect
they had on inter-city relations calls into question our understanding of the
“hierarchical-bureaucratic” nature of the Hanse’s political structure.
Kin networks, were only one kind of social network that could develop.
Ewert and Selzer also show the way non-kin networks can be determined by
using (for example) wills, fraternal association membership, real estate trans-
actions, etc. Sources like these illustrate the difficulty of reconstructing social
networks, but they also open a new window on our understanding of these
networks. Indeed, because the majority of Hanse firms were very small and
often family based, reconstructing social networks are crucial to understand-
ing the character and structure of Hanseatic commerce. It should come as no
surprise that it is due primarily to the work of Ewart and Selzer that the entire
field of network analysis has taken exciting new directions as it is applied to
the study of the Hanse.
In the chapter, “The Baltic Trade,” Carsten Jahnke examines Hanseatic
activities in the core region. Historical study of the Baltic came directly out of
the nationalist history movements that were the focus of archivists, editors of
source books, and even political propagandists at the end of the nineteenth
century. Indeed, according to Jahnke, the political overtones in Hanse research
intensified following the Second World War as regional political interests over-
shadowed a more unified understanding of the Baltic milieu. This situation
changed with the fall of the Iron Curtain as a new generation of scholars initi-
ated an international effort at rethinking the history of the Baltic.
For his part, Carsten Jahnke provides an excellent overview of the Hanse’s
Baltic trade routes, major commercial centers, and connections to the Baltic
hinterland. There were two primary westbound routes from the Baltic. The
first, by way of Lübeck and Hamburg was secure but costly. The second route,
around Skaw and through the Sound, became important in the thirteenth cen-
tury. This route was less costly, but more dangerous. Within the Baltic, a variety
of overlapping regional trade routes served, on one hand, to combine smaller
cargoes into larger ones for international trade, and on the other hand, to
break up larger international cargoes into smaller units for regional and local
trade. Tracing the trade routes is particularly important because few market-
able goods were produced in the Baltic area, rather the Baltic trade centered
10 Harreld

on goods produced in the Baltic “economic zone” which included regions far
inland from the Baltic.
The Hanse merchant trading in the Baltic was not simply a “monolithic
wholesaler,” rather he was a diversified enterpriser. This is made clear by
Jahnke’s presentation of the wide array of products that merchants traded in
the Baltic. These included Baltic produced goods like amber, cereals, herring,
and beer. But Hanse merchants also moved goods through the Baltic that origi-
nated in the hinterland, like wax, furs, timber, and metals, to name only the
most important goods. So the Baltic traders that Jahnke describes were multi-
faceted entrepreneurs.
We might say that a consensus has been building in Hanse history over that
past decades that suggests that all aspects of the Hanse were multifaceted
without the kind of hierarchies so much of the earlier scholarship proposed.
The genesis of this volume was the growing need for a jumping off point for
an international audience of scholars interested in Hanse history that would
bring readers “up to speed” on new research. The contributions to this vol-
ume, then, attempt to engage readers with both the historical narrative and
the methodological and theoretical approaches to the study of the Hanse. The
contributors represent the latest generation of Hanse scholars, and hopefully
point the way for young scholars to engage in the subject. The work being done
by younger scholars is not only promising, but will surely yield more volumes
such as this one in the coming years as even more discoveries are made about
the history of the Hanse.
Indeed, the entire field of Hanse history has been taken in new directions
during the past twenty years as the hurdles scholars encountered during the
Cold War have been removed. Archives are far more accessible than they were
for a previous generation of Hanse scholars,25 and the study of Hanse history
has begun to attract a broader group of practitioners. It is now relatively com-
mon to find scholars of Hanse history not only in Germany, but also through-
out Europe and North America. This expansion will enrich our knowledge of
the Hanse.

25 Lennart Bes, Edda Frankot, and Hanno Brand, eds., Baltic Connections. Archival Guide to
the Maritime Relations of the Countries around the Baltic Sea (including the Netherlands)
3 Vols. (Leiden: Brill, 2007).
 Introduction 11

150 km

100 mi Luleà
Oulu

Umeà
Trondheim
Vaasa

Tampere

Turku (Abo) St. Petersburg

Oslo Helsinki
Uppsala

Stockholm Tallinn (Reval)

Norrköping

Göteborg
Visby
Riga

Copenhagen
Odense Malmö
The Baltic Region
Vilnius
Kiel Stralsund Kaliningrad
Gdańsk Minsk
Lübeck Rostock (Danzig)

Szczecin

map 0.1 The Baltic region.

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