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 THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF DIVERSITY
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION
OF DIVERSITY
Recasting the Master Narrative
of Industrial Nations

R
Edited by

Christiane Harzig
and

Danielle Juteau

with Irina Schmitt

Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

h h Books
Berghahn B
NEW YORK • OXFORD

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 Published in 2003 by
Berghahn Books
www.berghahnbooks.com

© 2003 Christiane Harzig and Danielle Juteau

First paperback edition published in 2007.

All rights reserved.

Except for the quotation of short passages
for the purposes of criticism and review, no part of this book
may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information
storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented,
without written permission of the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The social construction of diversity : recasting the master narrative of

industrial nations / edited by Christiane Harzig and Danielle Juteau.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 1-57181-375-6 (hb) -- ISBN 1-84545-376-4 (pb)
1. Pluralism (Social sciences). 2. Multiculturalism. I. Harzig,
Christiane. II. Juteau, Danielle.
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

HM1271.S63 2003
305—dc21
2003043673

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from

the British Library.

Printed in the United States on acid-free paper

ISBN 1-57181-375-6 hardback

ISBN 1-57181-376-4 paperback

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 CONTENTS

R
List of Illustrations vii
Acknowledgments viii
Notes on Contributors ix
Introduction: Recasting Canadian and European History in a
Pluralist Perspective by Christiane Harzig and Danielle Juteau 1

Part I: Diversity in Everyday Life

1. Assimilation and Ethnic Diversity in France
Ida Simon-Barouh 15
2. Antagonistic Girls, or Why the Foreigners Are the Real Germans
Nora Räthzel 40

Part II: Economic Encounters

3. Transnational Migration and Entrepreneurship of Migrants:
Between Turkey, Europe, and the Turkic World
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Stéphane de Tapia 65
4. “Too Busy Working, No Time for Talking”: Chinese Small
Entrepreneurs, Social Mobility, and the Transfer of Cultural
Identity in Belgium, Britain, and the Netherlands at the
Margins of Multicultural Discourse
Ching Lin Pang 83
5. Transnationalism and Immigrant Entrepreneurship: Iranian
Diasporic Narratives from the United States, France, England,
and Germany
Minoo Moallem 104

Part III: Incorporating Diversity in Institutions and Legal Systems

6. Democratic Institutional Pluralism and Cultural Diversity
Veit Bader 131

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 vi | Contents

7. Multiculturalism, Secularism, and the State

Tariq Modood 168
8. Should National Minorities/Majorities Share Common
Institutions or Control Their Own Schools? A Comparison
of Policies and Debates in Quebec, Northern Ireland,
and Catalonia
Marie Mc Andrew 186
9. Family Norms and Citizenship in the Netherlands
Sarah van Walsum 212
10. Global Migranthood, Whiteness, and the Anxieties of
(In)Visibility: Italians in London
Anne-Marie Fortier 227

Part IV: Recasting the Master Narrative in Society

11. Canada: A Pluralist Perspective
Danielle Juteau 249
12. Of Minority Policy and (Homogeneous) Multiculturalism:
Constructing Multicultural Societies on a Nationalist Model—
the Post–World War II “Western” Experience
Christiane Harzig 262
13. A State of Many Nations: The Construction of a Plural
Spanish Society since 1976
Xosé-Manoel Núñez 284

Afterword: Difference and Policymaking by Tim Rees 308

Index 317
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 ILLUSTRATIONS

R
FIGURES
6.1 Arenas and Levels of Representation 134
6.2 Types of Institutional and Cultural Incorporation of
Ethnic/National Minorities 138
6.3. Fields of Incorporation 142
8.1 Ethnicity and School Structures in Quebec, 1867 190
8.2 Ethnicity and School Structures in Quebec, 1867–1977 190
8.3 Ethnicity and School Structures in Quebec, 1977–1998 192
8.4 Ethnicity and School Structures in Quebec since 1998 193
8.5 Ethnicity and School Structures in Northern Ireland, 1921–1989 195
8.6 Ethnicity and School Structures in Northern Ireland, 1989–1999 196
8.7 Ethnicity and School Structures in Northern Ireland since 1999 198
8.8 Ethnicity and School Structures in Catalonia before 1939 199
8.9 Ethnicity and School Structures in Catalonia, 1939–1975 200
8.10 Ethnicity and School Structures in Catalonia, 1975–1983 200
8.11 Ethnicity and School Structures in Catalonia since 1983 201
10.1 Giovanni Battista Scalabrini at the Milan Train Station 231
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

10.2 Fresco of the Crucifixion, Chiesa del Redentore, London 237

TABLES
7.1 Religion-State Separation: Radical and Moderate Versions
of Secularism and Islam 177
12.1 Major Source Countries of Canadian Immigration, 1946–1968 281
13.1 Election Results of Nationalist Parties in the Basque Country,
Catalonia, and Galicia 289
13.2 Preferences Regarding the Structure of the Spanish State,
1979–1990 296
13.3 Spanish and Peripheral Identity in the “Historical
Nationalities,” 1986–1995 300

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

R
When publishing a book manuscript that spans two continents, several
countries, and different academic cultures, the editors depend on the help
and assistance of many people. We would like to thank the participants of
the conference “Recasting European and Canadian History: National Con-
sciousness, Migration, Multicultural Lives,” which took place in Bremen
in 2000, for excellent papers, challenging discussions, and thought-pro-
voking comments. We appreciate the authors’ efficient and close coopera-
tion in completing the manuscript.
In particular, we would like to acknowledge the input of Czarina Wil-
pert, who aided in focusing complex issues and helped clarify sometimes
intricate arguments. Tamara Vukov, a doctoral student at Concordia Uni-
versity in Montreal, helped make a complex text more accessible. We also
appreciate Berghahn Books’ efforts to produce this volume.
Working in collaboration as co-editors has been a pleasure and a won-
derful learning experience. Irina Schmitt deserves our greatest respect for
her diligence, expedience, and patience.
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Christiane Harzig and Danielle Juteau

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 CONTRIBUTORS

R
Editors

Christiane Harzig was Assistant Professor at Bremen University where

she taught North American History. She has published on nineteenth-cen-
tury migration (Peasant Maids—City Women, editor, 1997), German-Amer-
ican women, and gender and migration. She recently edited a special issue
on migration for Magazine of History, published by the Organization of
American Historians, and has finished a book on post–World War II im-
migration policies in Europe and North America, Einwanderungspolitiken
in den Niederlanden, Schweden und Kanada. Historische Erinnerung und Poli-
tische Kultur als Gestaltungsressourcen (forthcoming 2004).

Danielle Juteau is Professor of Sociology at the Université de Montréal.

She has received a three-year research fellowship from the Trudeau Foun-
dation to pursue her comparative work on the transformation of plural-
ism in Western societies and the theorization of ethnicity in the world
system. Her work focuses on the construction and transformation of eth-
nic and gender relations. She has published extensively on nation-build-
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

ing in Canada, on multicultural citizenship, and on the production of

ethnicity. Her recent interests include the interconnections between sex/
gender and ethnic/national relations and the relations between citizen-
ship and pluralism. Her book L’ethnicité et ses frontières (1999) proposes a
theoretical framework for analyzing ethnic boundaries.

Authors

Veit Bader is Professor of Social and Political Philosophy, Faculty of

Humanities and of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Cultural Sciences, at
the University of Amsterdam. His main areas of teaching and research are
theories of society, particularly of social inequalities and collective action;
ethnic studies; normative and institutional problems of migration and
incorporation; and associative democracy. At present he is writing a book
on associative democracy and shifts in governance.

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 x | Contributors

Stéphane de Tapia is a geographer and social researcher at the Centre

National de la Recherche Scientifique (Scientific Research National Cen-
ter) in France. He is working at the European Cultures and Societies
Research Center (Strasbourg University) and MIGRINTER International
Migrations and Societies (Poitiers University), as well as teaching at the
Turkish Studies Department of Marc Bloch University in Strasbourg. His
research programs are developed on Turkish and Turkic international
migrations and mobilities in the contemporary world, including trans-
portation, communication, and information systems. He contributes to
periodicals such as Revue Européenne des Migrations Internationales and
Cahiers d’Etudes sur la Méditerrannée Orientale et le Monde Turco-Iranien. His
Ph.D. thesis was published in Paris under the title L’impact régional en
Turquie des investissements industriels des travailleurs émigrés (Industrialisa-
tion et Migrations Internationales en Turquie: les Investissements Industriels des
Emigrés à Yozgat) (1996).

Anne-Marie Fortier is Lecturer in the Sociology Department at Lancaster

University. She is the author of Migrant Belongings: Memory, Space, Identity
(2000). Her work on migrant belongings, home, and the intersections of
gender/sexuality/ethnicity has appeared in several anthologies and
journals, including Theory, Culture and Society; Disapora; and the European
Journal of Cultural Studies. She is co-editor of Uprootings/Regroundings:
Questions of Home and Migration (2003), and (with Sara Ahmed) of a the-
matic issue on “Re-Imagining Communities” of the International Journal of
Cultural Studies 6 (3) (2003). Her current project is entitled Multicultural
Horizons: Community, Diversity and the “New Britain.”

Marie Mc Andrew is Professor in the Department of Education and Ad-

ministration of Education Studies at the University of Montreal. She
received her doctorate in comparative education and educational founda-
tions, and specializes in the education of minorities and intercultural edu-
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

cation. From 1996 to 2002, she was Director of Immigration and Metropolis,
the inter-university research center of Montreal on immigration, integra-
tion, and urban dynamics. She also coordinates the interdisciplinary res-
earch team, Groupe de recherche sur l’ethnicité et l’adaptation au
pluralisme en éducation (Research Group on Ethnicity and Adaptation to
Pluralism in Education), which critically examines various issues, such as
the school integration of immigrants, the adaptation of Quebec’s French-
language educational system to diversity, and citizenship education. Pre-
senting an original synthesis of the studies conducted by the group since
1992, her most recent book, Immigration et diversité à l’école: le cas québécois
dans une perspective comparative (Immigration and Diversity in School: The
Québécois Case in a Comparative Perspective), won the 2001 Donner
Prize, which is awarded to the best book on Canadian public policy.

Minoo Moallem is Associate Professor and Chair of the Women’s Studies

Department at San Francisco State University. She is co-editor (with Caren

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 Contributors | xi

Kaplan and Norma Alarcon) of Between Woman and Nation: Nationalisms,

Transnational Feminisms, and the State (1999). She is currently working on a
book entitled Between Warrior Brother and Veiled Sister: Islamic Fundamen-
talism and the Cultural Politics of Patriarchy (forthcoming University of
California Press). Trained as a sociologist, she writes on post-colonial and
transnational feminist theories, gender and fundamentalism, globaliza-
tion, and Iranian cultural politics and diasporas.

Tariq Modood is Professor of Sociology, Politics, and Public Policy, and

Director of the Centre for the Study of Ethnicity and Citizenship at the Uni-
versity of Bristol. His many publications include Ethnic Minorities in Britain:
Diversity and Disadvantage (co-author, 1997), Church, State and Religious
Minorities (editor, 1997), Debating Cultural Hybridity (co-editor, 1997), and
The Politics of Multiculturalism in the New Europe (co-editor, 1997).

Xosé-Manoel Núñez was born in Ourense (Galicia, Spain). He holds a

Ph.D. in contemporary history from the European University Institute, Flo-
rence, and is currently Professor of Contemporary History at the University
of Santiago de Compostela. His research interests include the nationality
question in interwar Europe, nationalist movements in comparative per-
spective, and the history of overseas migration. Books include O galeguismo
en América, 1879–1992 (1992); Historiographical Approaches to Nationalism in
Spain (1993); Nationalism in Europe: Past and Present (co-editor, 1994); O
nacionalismo galego (co-author, 1995, 2nd ed. 1996); Emigrantes, caciques e
indianos (1998); Los nacionalismos en la España contemporánea, siglos XIX y XX
(1999); La Galicia austral: La inmigración gallega en la Argentina (editor, 2001);
Entre Ginebra y Berlín: La cuestión de las minorías nacionales y la política inter-
nacional en Europa, 1914–1939 (2001); and O inmigrante imaxinario (2002). He
has been guest researcher at the universities of Bielefeld, Halle an der Saale,
and at the Freie Universität Berlin, and guest professor at the City Univer-
sity of New York, Université Paris VII, and Université Paris X.
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Ching Lin Pang has received an MA in Oriental Philology (Catholic Uni-

versity Leuven), an MA in Asian Studies (University of California, Berke-
ley) and a PhD in Social and Cultural Anthropology (Catholic University
of Leuven). She has held several research positions at the University of
Leuven from 1996-2000. She was a research analyst at the Observatory for
Migrations, from Sept. 2001- Sept. 2006. She is currently lecturer at HEC-
Ecole de Gestion, University of Liège and senior researcher at the
Catholic University Leuven. Her area of research is situated in the anthro-
pology of ethnicity, migration and transnationalism with a geographical
focus on China, and in a lesser degree India and Japan. Her topics of
interest include recent migration flows from China to Europe, tourism
and place marketing of ethnic precincts in the urban context (the West
and Japan), identity of second and third generation Chinese in Bel-
gium/Europe, return migration (policy) and the emergence of popular
culture in contemporary China. She enjoys putting transnationalism into

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 xii | Contributors

practice through travel to and from Europe-Asia, while speaking the local
tongue of the country, where she finds herself.

Nora Räthzel is Reader in Sociology at the Department of Sociology, Uni-

versity of Umeå, Sweden. She studied educational science, psychology,
sociology, and philosophy at the Freie Universität Berlin. Her research is
in the areas of feminist theory, racism, migration, and constructions of the
nation. Since 1996, she has focused on youth, migration, and the city. She
is currently comparing the access to the labor market of young people of
migrant and non-migrant backgrounds in Sweden and Germany. A mem-
ber of the editorial board of Social Identities, her publications include
Gegenbilder: Konstruktionen der deutschen Nation durch Konstruktionen des
Anderen (1997); Theorien über Rassismus. Hamburg/Berlin. Argument-Son-
derband 258 (editor, 2000); and “Germans into Foreigners: How Anti-
nationalism Turns into Racism,” in Rethinking Anti-racism: From Theory to
Practice, edited by Floya Anthias and Cathie Lloyd (2002).

Tim Rees worked for thirty years in the settlement, multiculturalism, and
race relations fields in the public as well as private and voluntary sectors
in Canada. As a former policy manager with the Province of Ontario, he
assisted in the development of Ontario’s first policies on multicultural-
ism. He was with the municipal government of Toronto for twelve years
as a coordinator with the City of Toronto’s Access and Equity Unit. He
was also the editor of the first and only anti-racism journal in Canada,
Currents: Readings in Race Relations, which is published by the Urban
Alliance on Race Relations. After consulting for the Equality Unit of the
National Assembly for Wales, he is presently with the Diversity and Con-
sultation Unit of the Metropolitan Police Authority in London.

Ida Simon-Barouh is a researcher at CNRS (Centre National de la

Recherche Scientifique), Laboratoire Asie du Sud-Est et Monde Insulin-
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

dien (Paris), and at the Centre d’Étude et de Recherche sur les Relations
Inter-Ethniques et les Minorités (Université de Haute Bretagne, Rennes).
Her topics of research are children and youths in migratory situations,
“Asians” in France, receiving societies, and interethnic relations. Her
publications include Rapatriés d’Indochine: deuxième génération. Les enfants
d’origine indochinoise à Noyant d’Allier (1981); Eux et Nous. Rennes et les
étrangers (1987); Le Cambodge des Khmers rouges. Chronique de la vie quotidi-
enne. Récit de Yi Tan Kim Pho (1990); Dynamiques migratoires et relations
inter-ethniques (editor, 1998); and Migrations internationales et relations
inter-ethniques. Recherche, politique et société (editor, 1999).

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 Contributors | xiii

Sarah van Walsum was born and raised in Canada. After completing her
B.A. in history and French at Middlebury College, Vermont, she spent
two years as a CUSO-volunteer in Ghana. Subsequently, she moved to
the Netherlands, where she studied law at the University of Amsterdam.
She received her Ph.D. in law at the Erasmus University, Rotterdam. Her
doctoral thesis, titled “The Border’s Shadow,” deals with the implications
of Dutch immigration law for transnational family relationships. She has
clerked for the Amsterdam immigration court and worked as a legal
researcher and information officer for the Nederlands Centrum Buiten-
landers (Dutch Center for Foreigners) and for the Clara Wichmann Insti-
tuut (feminist legal center). Presently, she is doing research at the Free
University in Amsterdam on the history of Dutch family reunification
policies from 1945 to the present.
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 INTRODUCTION
Recasting Canadian and European History
in a Pluralist Perspective

R
Christiane Harzig and Danielle Juteau

No longer an abnormality, disruptive of societies and individuals, “differ-

ence” has become a right to be asserted.1 The erosion of discourses legit-
imizing homogeneity has not gone unobserved, as indicated by recent
works in sociology, history, anthropology, and philosophy, as well as in
feminist and cultural studies. Focusing on multicultural lives and plural-
istic societies, on mobile and hybrid individuals freed from homogenizing
forces, recent studies have sought to understand and, quite often, to
defend, the pluralist option. As such, they contribute to the definition and
consolidation of a new master narrative that is not yet clearly marked, the-
oretically and normatively. Rather it oscillates between venturing into
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

new forms of nation building and posing fundamental challenges to the

concept of the nation-state.
Diversity and difference as signifiers of the polity are not new, are not
reflections of recent developments. Historians, who a century ago were
influential in discursively constructing homogeneous national entities,
writing cultural difference out of history, have now taken up new respon-
sibilities. Rather than exclude diverging historical traditions from the mas-
ter narrative, the master narrative is recast to reflect that diversity. This
should be done not so much by just adding on “other” people’s stories but
by making them constitutive elements of historical development, chal-
lenging our interpretative frameworks and reference points of analysis.
Examples of this new scholarship have been brought together in The His-
torical Practice of Diversity, edited by Hoerder et al.2 The Social Construction
of Diversity picks up where this book leaves off.
Unlike in the United States, slavery with its far-reaching impact on social
relations has not become the all-penetrating signifier for race in Europe

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 2 | Christiane Harzig and Danielle Juteau

and Canada. Race and ethnicity nonetheless are related in hierarchical

ways. Other groups—French Canadians in Canada, Jews in Europe, and
immigrants in both areas—serve as reference to indicate the relationship
between the margin and the center. Thus, a comparative analysis of Cana-
dian and European developments challenges the prevailing assumptions
about old and new immigration countries. This often dichotomous posi-
tioning at the same time ignores the multicultural past of European states
as it underestimates the changes that have taken place in Canada since the
1960s. Multiculturalism did not come “naturally” to Canadian political cul-
ture but rather was the product of demands formulated by leaders of eth-
nic groups, as well as astute decision-making processes and the political
will to incorporate diversity.
This book sheds a different light on the processes usually linked to
migration and insertion, such as contact, conflict, and accommodation. It
focuses on the contemporary debates surrounding the transformation of
pluralism, as it evolves toward a democratic mode. It examines how these
debates challenge existing ideologies, modify institutional frameworks,
and affect daily life and encounters. But first, we shall explore the passage
from discourses and practices of homogenization to diversity and plural-
ism, identify its sources, and look into its impact, concrete and normative.

The Bygone Days of “la mission civilisatrice”

According to a well-known rendition, colonialism was beneficial to the

enlightenment, advancement, and well-being of the colonized.3 These dis-
courses, which justified exploitation and dispossession, accompanied the
circulation of human and nonhuman commodities, from the colonial pow-
ers to the colonies, from the colonies to the colonial powers, and from one
colony to another. These movements of population ranged from slavery to
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

indentured labor, from colonial settlement to other forms of “free” migra-

tion. It is fundamental to differentiate between these forms of labor, since
they diversely affect modes of insertion into “receiving” societies and the
ensuing ethnic dynamics (Schermerhorn 1970). Societal practices varied
from exclusion or separation to partial or complete assimilation, with plu-
ralism usually representing an undemocratic form of “race” and ethnic
relations.4 Domination, which implied treating persons and collectivities,
deemed unequally endowed, differently, was justified by an ideology of
naturalized difference.
It is not surprising therefore that assimilationism5 presented a more
appealing option.6 Assimilation came to mean equality, or at least the right
to equal treatment, a conception found both in scientific and political dis-
courses. It is very present, for example, in the work of the Chicago School,
where “race” and ethnic relations are viewed in terms of a long process of
interaction that finally culminates in assimilation, which in turn is con-
ceived, implicitly at least, as the attainment of equality.7 Difference or

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 Introduction | 3

equality, assimilation or inequality, such was, and still is, the “false dichot-
omization which sets out an impossible choice” (Scott 1992).
If assimilation represented the road to equality, how then can we ex-
plain its recent misadventures? Many factors come to mind, such as trans-
formations in the world system linked to movements of decolonization
and shifting power relations. The persisting inequalities between groups
attest to the failure of assimilationism and assimilation. In addition, as
observed by Guillaumin (1981) in “La colère des opprimés,” the narratives
that make sense of the world become more and more inadequate. And, as
they progressively reveal themselves for what they are—justifications and
rationalizations—they become insupportable.
The belief in the superiority of the dominant group and in its obligation
to impose its values and culture on the “Other” was also under fire in set-
tler societies where indigenous peoples and incoming immigrants alike
had been subjected to assimilative pressures, albeit of a different kind.
Here too, the edifice began to crumble as brought to light by the presence
of unmeltable ethnics and ethnic revivals8 and the intensified critique of
the homogenizing ideology associated with the nation-state.

The Advent of New Narratives

Assimilationism, once quite valued when compared to other means of

coping with difference, emerges as the accompaniment of domination. It
has often become synonymous with annihilation, partial destruction, or
disrespect. It also appears more clearly now that this ideology represents
only one possible outcome, always provisional and contested—as indi-
cated by the rise of pluralism—of a struggle between majorities and
minorities that plays itself out in many settings, such as the ideological
and political spheres and the scientific domain.
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Many governments are contemplating pluralist societal models, dis-

cussing the principle of “reasonable accommodations,” implementing
multicultural policies, and accepting the need for inclusive practices in
education and social services. In Canada, pluralism was always struc-
turally present (Juteau 2000), but it took on a new life with the adoption of
a policy of multiculturalism in 1971 and the definition of a national iden-
tity encapsulating multiple ethnicities. In Germany, on the other hand,
only for the briefest period in its history a unified nation (1871–1945,
1990–), ideologues of political culture considered ethnic homogeneity as
the mortar that kept the nation together. Pluralism, though structurally—
in class as well as in ethnic terms—very much part of its social fabric, was
considered a threat by gatekeepers of national identity.
The humanities and social sciences, which had partaken in the hege-
mony of assimilationism, now contributed to its “dismantlement.” Femi-
nists and postmodernists alike questioned the premises inherited from
the Enlightenment such as the universal conception of abstract and equal

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 4 | Christiane Harzig and Danielle Juteau

individuals, the reductionism of Marxism that hindered the recognition of

other forms of oppressions, as well as the empiricism, objectivism, and
claim to universalism of contemporary social sciences.9
Anti-essentialism and anti-foundationalism represent two strands of
this critique. Objects, individuals, and collectivities were no longer seen in
terms of containing an everlasting core, which determined behavior. Essen-
tialism was rejected for being anti-historical and static, for taking as a point
of departure what is in fact an end-point. The attributes of ethnicity and
femininity were shown to be constructed, their meaning constantly fluctu-
ating. The rejection of essentialism went further. “Essentialist!” became a
slur. To be soupçonné of essentialism could bring on disgrace and disre-
pute.10 Anti-foundationalists on their part maintained that social criticism
must be detached from a universalizing theoretical foundation and be-
come sensitive to historical and cultural diversity (Fraser and Nicholson
1990). One cannot treat as universal what is specific to class, sex and gen-
der, sexual orientation, and ethnicity (27).
This led to a rejection of categories, such as women and Black, now seen
as concealing differences and as having fluctuating meanings. As the focus
shifted from categories to the process of categorization, understanding
how people were racialized, ethnicized, and gendered became central. But
the construction of the categories themselves, such as race and sex, a
process embedded in unequal and distinct set of social relations, was
largely ignored. It might well be that the critique of Marxist reductionism
further added to the erasure of the social relations underlying the con-
struction of social categories.11 Consequently, the process of social differen-
tiation was perceived mainly in terms of shifting meanings and the absence
of referentiality. However, this approach, which often negates the reality of
individuals and their agency, of history, and of philosophy, has not gone
undisputed. Benhabib (1996), for instance, criticizes an absolute relativism
that disrupts the efforts of groups seeking to structure their social action.
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Thus, the main challenge remains to define a constructivism that is

materially grounded and embedded in social relations. Examining the
debate on difference, differentiation, and diversity can help us here.

Difference, Diversity, Differentiation

The critique of universalism as a false premise brought on, as we have

seen, the recognition of difference and its celebration. Claiming “le droit à la
différence” became an act of resistance. Yet a great amount of ambiguity
remains, which espouses many forms. In some cases, difference remains
unquestioned, as in the case of those educators and social workers wanting
to provide appropriate services to the Other. Interculturalism and multi-
culturalism as ideology and practice sometimes carry this bias. But the
recognition of difference also encounters limits in many scientific texts.
While we have traveled the road from essentialism to constructivism, some

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 Introduction | 5

trace of substantialism remains. If objects and collectivities are no longer

seen in terms of stable and unchanging attributes, they are still often theo-
rized outside the social relations that construct them. While the presence of
unequal power relations and of difference is often recognized, the two phe-
nomena are seldom linked. Thus, authors discuss groups that are different
and unequal without associating the two processes, that is without locating
the construction of difference within unequal social relations.
A fruitful distinction is offered by Scott (1992) who cogently argues that
the individualism and pluralism of liberal thinkers, who confuse differ-
ence with diversity, be transcended. While the latter refers to a plurality of
identities and is seen as a condition of human existence, the former (dif-
ference) is “an effect of practices of discrimination and exclusion that
make differences meaningful, that define some groups and people as dif-
ferent from what is taken to be a norm” (Scott 1992: 6).12 But Scott then
goes on to affirm that these interconnected systems or structures create
repeated processes of the enunciation of cultural difference. And so once
again, the presence of unequal economic, political, and cultural resources,
and the processes of monopolistic closures,13 through which inequalities
are created and maintained, fade behind processes of enunciation.14
While many authors recognize that difference is socially constructed
and that universalism is supported by dominant groups, it would seem
that few of them linked the construction of differences to the position held
by dominant groups, a position of power that also underlies their claim to
universalism as well as their defense of homogeneity. What they are actu-
ally doing is setting themselves as the norm and defending their speci-
ficity, what Bader (1995) calls chauvinistic universalism. Our point here is
that the construction of difference must be examined in relational terms,
that differentiation involves ipso facto hierarchization, which is materially
grounded. This has to be differentiated from diversity, which involves a
plurality of social groups and identities. The presence of diverse groups,
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

ethnic, national, and racialized, can best be understood in terms of a two-

sided boundary that includes an internal and an external dimension
(Juteau 1999), involving a simultaneous relationship to one’s trajectory
and history and to others. This allows us to conceive of pluralism in terms
of diversity and difference, never eluding social relations of domination
yet not reducing group dynamics solely to this dimension.
This volume presents such specific, though contextualized incidences
of diversity and difference, which then, patched together, provide texture
for new (master) narratives.

Impact of New Narratives

Diversity, as a multilayered experience, affects people’s lives as well as

institutions and administrations, institution-building processes, and nor-
mative and cognitive value systems. The essays in this volume not only

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
 6 | Christiane Harzig and Danielle Juteau

contextualize diversity, but also demonstrate its many dimensions. They

explore how it is constructed, experienced, incorporated, and narrated.
Their multitiered analysis recognizes the embeddedness of distinct levels.
They focus on the relation between individual experiences and the insti-
tutions and discourses that shape them, as well as on the shifts in ideolo-
gies induced by changing institutional frames.
The essays in Part One present us with the day-to-day reality of diver-
sity, albeit on different levels. They show how individuals create meaning,
and how difference comes to matter in economic, social, and political life,
and they address the question of identity in changing contexts and histo-
ries. Carrying these issues into institutional settings, i.e., schools, the
authors demonstrate how people, especially young people, negotiate
minority/majority issues, which are, as we have theoretically argued and
as Räthzel is able to show, never fixed. Here we can see anti-essentialism
at work. Who is “we” and who is “they,” who is dominant and who is
marginalized is in no way clear from the start as ethnicity/cultural back-
ground is not necessarily an indicator. Simon-Barouh presents the negoti-
ating processes within the context of the French history of immigration
and ethnicity. She observes a growing trend of ethnic survival, especially
among immigrants from Indochina, after a period of ascribed institutional
“ethnic blindness,” which supported assimilation. Both essays point to
the issue of diversity from a generational point of view. For people, espe-
cially young people growing up in culturally diverse environments, di-
versity and difference have changing contours that are neither fixed nor
exclusive. Gender, class, and ethnicity permeate popular and youth cul-
ture and produce a blend beyond the group markers of previous genera-
tions, who, nonetheless, dominate institutions and the political system.
Part Two addresses entrepreneurship, transnationalism, and cultural
identity with respect to migrants from China and Turkey, two of the most
prominent and most studied migrant groups, and Iranians, who have a
Copyright © 2003. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

less visible, but very viable presence in Europe and North America.15
Among the oldest international migrants are the Chinese, who were re-
cruited in vast numbers; as many as 4,850,000 emigrants departed from
China in the last quarter of the nineteenth century for plantation work in
colonial settings throughout the world (Ma Mung 2000). However, despite
colonial influences, the size of Chinese migrant communities in Western
Europe has been to date relatively less visible than the “overseas Chinese”
in Southeast Asia or Chinese settlements in the Americas. Migrants from
Turkey were recruited more recently, in the second half of the twentieth
century, to work in mines, industries, and construction sites in Germany,
Belgium, the Netherlands, and other European centers. They are consid-
ered to be more visible migrants who have become the prototype of the
“guestworker” and at times in Belgium as in Germany primary examples
of unassimilated or “ghettoized” immigrants. Recent migration from Iran
is very much impacted, though not solely, caused by the Iranian revolution
in 1979. Students, who may be considered among the pioneers of the

The Social Construction of Diversity : Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations, Berghahn Books, Incorporated, 2003.
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