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 Electromagnetic Waves 56

Propagation of Radiowaves

3rd Edition
Propagation of Radiowaves
3rd Edition Propagation of
Radiowaves
3rd Edition
Propagation of Radiowaves introduces the basic concepts and mechanisms Les Barclay OBE is a consultant in radiowave
of radiowave propagation engineering in both the troposphere and propagation and spectrum management.
ionosphere, an understanding of which is fundamental to the effective use of He has been involved in the organisation
the radio spectrum for radiocommunication. Reflecting the wide experience and lecturing for all IET residential courses in
radiowave propagation, and has chaired the
of the exceptional group of authors, the contents provide a firm background
organising committee for these courses. He
to established theory and introduce the most appropriate models, methods has lectured internationally on radio regulation,
and procedures which are of use to spectrum planners, system designers and spectrum management and propagation. Prior
operators in assessing the estimated performance of radio systems. to this he was the deputy director at the UK
The field of radio communications continues to change rapidly and the third Radiocommunications Agency responsible
for research. He was elected as international
edition of this outstanding and successful book has been fully updated to
chairman of ITU-R Study Group 3 on radiowave
reflect the latest developments. The relevant Recommendations of ITU-R propagation and has been chairman of the
Study Group 3 are discussed and put into context. IET professional groups on antennas and
Propagation of Radiowaves, 3rd Edition is essential reading for professionals propagation, and on radiocommunications. He
involved in the planning, design and operation of radio systems, as well as is a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering
and the IET.
academics and postgraduate students in the field.
Edited by Barclay

Edited by
Les Barclay
The Institution of Engineering and Technology
www.theiet.org
978-1-84919-578-2

Propagation of Radiowaves.indd 1 22/11/2012 14:38:37

 IET ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES SERIES 56

Propagation of
Radiowaves
Other volumes in this series:

Volume 1 Geometrical theory of diffraction for electromagnetic waves, 3rd edition

G.L. James
Volume 10 Aperture antennas and diffraction theory E.V. Jull
Volume 11 Adaptive array principles J.E. Hudson
Volume 12 Microstrip antenna theory and design J.R. James, P.S. Hall and C. Wood
Volume 15 The handbook of antenna design, volume 1 A.W. Rudge, K. Milne, A.D. Oliver and
P. Knight (Editors)
Volume 16 The handbook of antenna design, volume 2 A.W. Rudge, K. Milne, A.D. Oliver and
P. Knight (Editors)
Volume 18 Corrugated horns for microwave antennas P.J.B. Clarricoats and A.D. Oliver
Volume 19 Microwave antenna theory and design S. Silver (Editor)
Volume 21 Waveguide handbook N. Marcuvitz
Volume 23 Ferrites at microwave frequencies A.J. Baden Fuller
Volume 24 Propagation of short radio waves D.E. Kerr (Editor)
Volume 25 Principles of microwave circuits C.G. Montgomery, R.H. Dicke and E.M. Purcell
(Editors)
Volume 26 Spherical near-field antenna measurements J.E. Hansen (Editor)
Volume 28 Handbook of microstrip antennas, 2 volumes J.R. James and P.S. Hall (Editors)
Volume 31 Ionospheric radio K. Davies
Volume 32 Electromagnetic waveguides: theory and applications S.F. Mahmoud
Volume 33 Radio direction finding and superresolution, 2nd edition P.J.D. Gething
Volume 34 Electrodynamic theory of superconductors S.A. Zhou
Volume 35 VHF and UHF antennas R.A. Burberry
Volume 36 Propagation, scattering and diffraction of electromagnetic waves A.S. Ilyinski,
G. Ya.Slepyan and A. Ya.Slepyan
Volume 37 Geometrical theory of diffraction V.A. Borovikov and B.Ye. Kinber
Volume 38 Analysis of metallic antenna and scatterers B.D. Popovic and B.M. Kolundzija
Volume 39 Microwave horns and feeds A.D. Olver, P.J.B. Clarricoats, A.A. Kishk and L. Shafai
Volume 41 Approximate boundary conditions in electromagnetics T.B.A. Senior and
J.L. Volakis
Volume 42 Spectral theory and excitation of open structures V.P. Shestopalov and
Y. Shestopalov
Volume 43 Open electromagnetic waveguides T. Rozzi and M. Mongiardo
Volume 44 Theory of nonuniform waveguides: the cross-section method B.Z.
Katsenelenbaum, L. Mercader Del Rio, M. Pereyaslavets, M. Sorella Ayza and
M.K.A. Thumm
Volume 45 Parabolic equation methods for electromagnetic wave propagation M. Levy
Volume 46 Advanced electromagnetic analysis of passive and active planar structures
T. Rozzi and M. Farinai
Volume 47 Electromagnetic mixing formulas and applications A. Sihvola
Volume 48 Theory and design of microwave filters I.C. Hunter
Volume 49 Handbook of ridge waveguides and passive components J. Helszajn
Volume 50 Channels, propagation and antennas for mobile communications R. Vaughan
and J. Bach-Anderson
Volume 51 Asymptotic and hybrid methods in electromagnetics F. Molinet, I. Andronov and
D. Bouche
Volume 52 Thermal microwave radiation: applications for remote sensing C. Matzler
(Editor)
Volume 53 Principles of planar near-field antenna measurements S. Gregson, J. McCormick
and C. Parini
Volume 54 Satellite-to-ground radiowave propagation, 2nd edition J.E. Allnutt
Volume 502 Propagation of radiowaves, 2nd edition L.W. Barclay (Editor)
Propagation of
Radiowaves
3rd Edition

Edited by
Les Barclay

The Institution of Engineering and Technology

Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom
The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in
England & Wales (no. 211014) and Scotland (no. SC038698).
† 2013 The Institution of Engineering and Technology
First published 2013

This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright
Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research
or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in
the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued
by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those
terms should be sent to the publisher at the undermentioned address:

The Institution of Engineering and Technology

Michael Faraday House
Six Hills Way, Stevenage
Herts, SG1 2AY, United Kingdom
www.theiet.org

While the author and publisher believe that the information and guidance given
in this work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when
making use of them. Neither the author nor publisher assumes any liability to
anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether
such an error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all
such liability is disclaimed.
The moral rights of the author to be identified as author of this work have been
asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-84919-578-2 (hardback)

ISBN 978-1-84919-579-9 (PDF)

Typeset in India by MPS Limited

Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
 Contents

Preface xvi

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Radio waves 1
1.2 The radio spectrum 2
1.3 Radio services 2
1.4 Propagation effects 4
1.5 Spectrum use 5
1.6 The needs for propagation information 9
1.7 Performance guarantees 9
1.8 Propagation models 9
1.8.1 Amplitude attenuation 9
1.8.2 Time 10
1.8.3 Frequency 10
1.8.4 Variability 10
1.9 Fading and variability 11
1.10 Confidence 11
1.11 Stretching the model 12
1.12 Mapping 13
1.13 Prediction 14
1.14 Conclusion 15
1.15 The International Telecommunication Union 15
References 16

2 Radio waves 17
Summary 17
2.1 Physical description of radio waves 17
2.1.1 The plane wave 17
2.1.2 Complex notation 18
2.1.3 The sense of time and space 19
2.1.4 Linear, circular and elliptical polarisation 20
2.2 Basic radio parameters 20
2.2.1 Decibels 21
2.2.2 Propagation in free space 22
2.2.3 Antenna gain 24
2.2.3.1 Antenna factor 25
vi Propagation of radiowaves

2.2.4 Equivalent and effective radiated powers 26

2.2.5 Antenna effective aperture 26
2.2.6 Transmission loss 27
2.2.7 Free-space basic transmission loss for radar 28
2.2.8 Antenna radiation patterns 30
2.2.9 Effect of the ground 32
2.3 The parabolic approximation 33
References 34

3 Electromagnetic wave propagation 35

3.1 Basic electromagnetic theory 35
3.1.1 Plane-wave solutions 36
3.1.2 Wave impedance 37
3.1.3 Power flow and Poynting’s theorem 37
3.1.4 Exponential notation 38
3.2 Radiation from current distributions 39
3.2.1 Radiation from a short current element 39
3.2.2 Radiation resistance 42
3.2.3 The half-wave dipole 42
Reference 43

4 Fading and statistics 45

4.1 Fading and variability 45
4.1.1 Occurrence distributions 45
4.1.2 Normal (Gaussian) distribution 47
4.1.3 Log-normal distribution 48
4.1.4 Rayleigh distribution 48
4.1.5 Combined log-normal and Rayleigh distribution 50
4.1.6 Rice distribution 51
4.1.7 The Gamma distribution 52
4.1.8 Other distributions 53
4.2 Link power budgets 53
4.2.1 Fading allowances 55
4.3 Diversity 55
4.3.1 Correlation coefficient 58
4.3.2 Diversity gain and diversity improvement 59
References 59

5 Radio noise 61
5.1 Radio noise 61
5.2 White Gaussian noise (WGN) statistics 61
5.3 Noise factor 62
5.4 External noise 63
5.5 Sources of radio noise 63
5.5.1 Atmospheric noise from lightning 65
5.5.2 Galactic noise 66
 Contents vii

5.5.3 Man-made noise 67

5.5.4 Noise at mm wavelengths due to the temperature of
atmospheric gases and to the ground temperature 67
5.6 Combination of noise contributions 68
5.7 The measurement of radio noise 68
5.8 Impulsive noise 69
5.8.1 Impulsive noise statistics 70
5.8.2 An approximate alternative procedure for
determining the APD in presence of impulsive noise 72
5.9 Noise measurement parameter extraction 72
5.9.1 WGN parameter extraction 72
5.9.2 IN parameter extraction 72
5.9.3 Influence of receiver bandwidth 73
References 73

6 Clear-air characteristics of the troposphere 75

6.1 Introduction 75
6.2 Causes and effects of refraction in the troposphere 75
6.2.1 Electromagnetic waves 75
6.2.2 Radio refractive index 76
6.2.3 Effect of the refractive index on radiowaves 78
6.2.4 Temporal and geographical variations of
DN and k factor 83
6.2.5 Gaseous absorption and complex refractive index 84
6.2.6 Refractive index measurements 86
6.3 Anomalous propagation: multipath and ducting 87
6.3.1 Types of duct 87
6.3.2 Evaporation 91
6.3.3 Nocturnal radiation 91
6.3.4 Subsidence inversion 92
6.3.5 Advection 94
6.4 Propagation models 94
6.4.1 Statistical and deterministic models 94
6.4.2 Geometrical optics 95
6.4.3 Mode theory 96
6.4.4 Parabolic equation 97
6.5 Turbulent scatter 100
References 101

7 Reflection and scattering from rough surfaces 103

7.1 Introduction 103
7.2 Reflection from a plane surface 103
7.2.1 The complex reflection coefficient 103
7.2.2 Definition of reflection angles 104
7.2.3 Designation of polarisation 104
viii Propagation of radiowaves

7.3 Reflection by perfectly conducting surfaces 105

7.3.1 Theory of images 105
7.3.2 Perfect reflection for perpendicular polarisation 106
7.3.3 Perfect reflection for parallel polarisation 106
7.3.4 Discussion of perfect-reflection results 106
7.4 Reflection by finitely conducting surfaces 107
7.4.1 Electrical properties relevant to reflection 107
7.4.2 Snell’s law for angle of refraction 107
7.4.3 Continuity of tangential electric fields 108
7.4.4 Continuity of tangential magnetic field 109
7.4.5 Complex permittivity 109
7.4.6 General complex reflection coefficients 109
7.5 The plane-earth two-ray reflection model 112
7.5.1 Explicit calculation 113
7.6 Height gain 114
7.7 Reflection and scattering from Rough surface 119
References 120

8 Introduction to multipath propagation 121

8.1 Introduction 121
8.2 General principles 121
8.3 Characteristics of multipath propagation 123
8.3.1 Spatial variation 123
8.3.2 Spectral variation 125
8.3.3 Delay distribution 127
8.3.4 Doppler distribution 130
Reference 131

9 Diffraction 133
Summary 133
9.1 Introduction 133
9.2 Classification of diffraction methods 134
9.3 Knife-edge Fresnel diffraction 135
9.3.1 Knife-edge geometry 135
9.3.2 Knife-edge diffraction 137
9.3.3 Normalised knife-edge diffracted field 138
9.3.4 Multiple knife-edge diffraction 140
9.3.5 Evaluation of Fresnel integrals 141
9.4 Fresnel clearance 141
9.5 Applications of knife-edge diffraction 143
9.5.1 Diffraction due to terrain 143
9.5.2 Diffraction due to a thins creen 146
9.5.3 Diffraction due to a finite-width obstacle 148
9.6 Diffraction over curved surfaces 150
9.6.1 Diffraction over spherical earth 150
9.6.2 Cascaded cylinders terrain diffraction 150
 Contents ix

9.7 Diffraction over a general terrain path 151

9.7.1 Issues with irregular terrain models 151
9.7.2 Hybrid methods for the general path 152
9.7.3 The ‘delta’ method 153
9.8 Ray-based diffraction methods 154
9.8.1 GTD/UTD in two dimensions 155
9.8.2 A specific UTD formulation 155
9.8.3 Sample UTD results 156
9.8.4 Diffraction in three dimensions 157
9.8.5 Ray-tracing methods 158
9.9 Boersma coefficients 158
References 158

10 Propagation in rain and clouds 161

10.1 Introduction 161
10.1.1 Rain 161
10.1.2 Snow 162
10.1.3 Hail and graupel 162
10.1.4 Clouds 163
10.2 The melting layer 164
10.3 Precipitation variation with time 166
10.4 Precipitation variation over an area 167
10.5 The effect of hydrometeors on radiowaves 168
10.5.1 Refractive index 168
10.5.2 The Rayleigh scattering region 169
10.5.3 The Mie and optical scattering regions 171
10.5.4 The small-scale structure of rain 171
10.6 Attenuation effects 175
10.7 Depolarisation effects 177
10.8 Cross-polar distribution (XPD) models 178
10.9 Canting angles 179
10.10 Rain scatter 179
10.11 ITU propagation models 180
10.12 Example – simplified calculation of the distribution
of rain fading for terrestrial link 185
References 186

11 The ionosphere 187

11.1 Introduction 187
11.2 Morphology of the ionosphere 187
11.3 Instrumentation 191
11.3.1 Ionosonde 191
11.3.2 Incoherent scatter radar 191
11.3.3 Coherent backscatter radar 192
11.3.4 Transionospheric radio 192
11.3.5 Other techniques 193
x Propagation of radiowaves

11.4 Ionospheric models 193

11.5 Composition and physics 193
11.5.1 Chapman theory 193
11.5.2 Neutral winds and electric fields 195
11.6 Disturbances arising from solar storms 196
11.7 Summary 198
Acknowledgement 198
Bibliography 198

12 Ionospheric propagation 199

12.1 Introduction 199
12.2 Ionospheric morphology 202
12.3 Theory of ionospheric propagation 203
12.3.1 Introduction 203
12.3.2 Vertical propagation – no collisions 203
12.3.3 Group path and phase path 204
12.4 Oblique propagation 205
12.5 Absorption 206
12.6 Ray tracing 208
12.6.1 Introduction 208
12.6.2 Virtual techniques 208
12.6.3 Numerical ray tracing 209
12.6.4 Analytic ray tracing 209
12.7 The basic MUF and multipath 210
12.8 Fading and doppler effects 215
12.9 HF simulators 215
12.9.1 Introduction 215
12.9.2 Watterson model 216
12.9.3 Case study 218
12.10 HF propagation prediction 221
12.10.1 Introduction 221
12.10.2 Empirical models 221
12.10.3 HF prediction methods 222
12.10.4 Case study 224
12.10.4.1 Frequency combining 225
12.10.4.2 Site combining 225
12.10.4.3 Effect on coverage predictions 226
12.10.4.4 Experimental validation 226
12.11 Extending propagation codes for digital systems 228
12.12 Conclusion 230
References 230

13 Surface waves, and sky waves below 2 MHz 235

13.1 Introduction 235
13.2 Applications 235
 Contents xi

13.3 Surface-wave propagation 236

13.3.1 What is the ‘surface wave’? 236
13.3.2 Theory for a homogeneous smooth earth 237
13.3.2.1 Plane finitely conducting earth 237
13.3.2.2 Spherical finitely conducting earth 240
13.3.3 Atmospheric effects 240
13.3.4 ITU-R recommended prediction method 241
13.3.5 Ground conductivity maps 244
13.3.6 Smooth earth of mixed conductivity 244
13.3.7 The effects of buildings 247
13.3.8 Emerging new MF propagation models 248
13.4 Sky-wave propagation below 2 MHz 248
13.4.1 What is the ‘sky wave’? – hops and modes 248
13.4.2 Waveguide-mode field-strength prediction theory 249
13.4.3 Wave-hop field-strength prediction theory 251
13.4.4 An empirical field-strength prediction theory 253
13.4.4.1 General features 254
13.4.4.2 Terminal losses and sea gain 254
13.4.4.3 Polarisation-coupling loss 256
13.4.4.4 Temporal variability 256
13.5 Antenna efficiency 258
13.6 Surface-wave/sky-wave interactions 259
13.7 Background noise 259
Acknowledgements 260
References 260

14 Terrestrial line-of-sight links 263

14.1 Introduction 263
14.2 Path planning 265
14.2.1 Path clearance 265
14.2.2 Avoidance of ground reflections 265
14.3 Conditions at the receiver 268
14.4 Fade margin 269
14.5 Fading models 269
14.5.1 Clear-air fading 270
14.5.2 Precipitation fading 272
14.5.3 Combination of clear-air and precipitation fading 272
14.6 Multipath propagation 273
14.7 Other issues 277
Reference 277

15 Propagation for mobile and area coverage systems 279

15.1 Introduction 279
15.2 The mobile channel 280
15.3 Predicting median loss 281
xii Propagation of radiowaves

15.3.1 Empirical models 282

15.3.1.1 Recommendation ITU-R P.1546 282
15.3.1.2 Okamura–Hata model 285
15.3.1.3 COST 231 – Hata model 287
15.3.2 Physical or deterministic model 287
15.3.2.1 Longley–Rice (irregular terrain model) 287
15.3.2.2 ITU-R Recommendation P.1812 288
15.3.2.3 Ikegami 292
15.3.2.4 Walfisch–Bertoni 293
15.3.2.5 COST 231 – Walfisch–Ikegami 294
15.4 Location variability 295
15.4.1 Definitions 295
15.4.2 The exclusion of multipath effects 296
15.4.3 Empirical data 297
15.4.4 ITU-R model 298
15.4.5 Impact of location variability on coverage 298
15.5 Multipath fading and wideband effects 299
15.5.1 Empirical data and statistical characterization 299
15.6 Other issues 301
15.6.1 Tidal fading 301
15.6.2 Temporal variability 303
References 304

16 Short-range and indoor propagation 305

16.1 Introduction 305
16.2 Short-range outdoor models 305
16.2.1 Microcell propagation 306
16.2.1.1 Plane-earth (two-ray) model 306
16.2.1.2 Multi-slope model 308
16.2.2 Propagation between low-height terminals 308
16.3 Building penetration loss 310
16.3.1 Definition 310
16.3.2 Empirical data 311
16.3.2.1 Broadcast bands 311
16.3.2.2 Other frequencies 311
16.3.3 Models 312
16.4 Indoor propagation 312
16.4.1 Characteristics 312
16.4.2 Modelling 313
16.4.2.1 Narrow band channel models of the
802.11n project 314
16.4.2.2 Multi-wall models (Keenan &
Motley, P.1238) 314
16.4.3 The indoor wideband channel 315
 Contents xiii

16.4.3.1 The Turin/Suzuki ‘D – K’ model 316

16.4.3.2 The Saleh and Valenzuela ‘double
exponential’ model 316
16.4.3.3 802.11 channel models 317
References 318

17 Fixed wireless access and radio LANs 319

17.1 Introduction 319
17.2 Coverage 321
17.2.1 Reflection and diffraction 321
17.2.2 Route diversity 325
17.2.3 Vegetation attenuation 326
17.2.4 Dynamic effects of vegetation 328
17.3 Availability 329
17.3.1 Multipath 329
17.3.2 Rain attenuation 331
17.4 Interference 331
17.5 Recommended models for broadband
propagation studies 333
References 334

18 Earth–space propagation 335

18.1 Introduction 335
18.2 Tropospheric propagation impairments 336
18.2.1 The troposphere 336
18.2.2 Signal (path) loss 337
18.2.3 Prediction models for path attenuation
and sky noise increase 337
18.2.3.1 Prediction of gaseous attenuation 338
18.2.3.2 Prediction of rain/cloud attenuation 338
18.2.3.3 Accuracy of rain/cloud
attenuation predictions 341
18.2.3.4 Sky noise increase 342
18.2.4 Refractive (lossless) effects 342
18.2.4.1 Tropospheric amplitude scintillation 343
18.2.4.2 Refractive impairments at very-low
elevation angles (q < 5 ) 344
18.2.5 Path depolarisation 345
18.2.6 Tropospheric path delay 346
18.3 Trans-ionospheric effects 347
18.3.1 General 347
18.3.2 Path delay 349
18.3.3 Scintillations 350
18.3.4 Faraday rotation 352
18.4 Effects of the terrestrial environment 352
xiv Propagation of radiowaves

18.4.1 Shadowing 353

18.4.2 Signal blockage 354
18.4.3 Multipath 355
18.5 Link performance and availability 355
18.5.1 Combination of propagation impairments 356
18.5.2 Propagation impairment mitigation 357
18.5.2.1 Spatial and temporal variability of
propagation impairments 358
18.5.2.2 Fading dynamics 360
18.5.2.3 Correlation of propagation impairments
at different frequencies 361
References 362

19 Terahertz propagation 365

19.1 Introduction 365
19.2 Technology 366
19.3 Propagation 366
19.3.1 Gaseous attenuation 366
19.3.1.1 Sea level 366
19.3.1.2 Inclined paths 366
19.3.2 Attenuation due to rainfall 371
19.3.3 Attenuation due to clouds and fog 371
19.3.3.1 Attenuation through clouds 376
19.4 ITU-R recommendations 376
Acknowledgements 377

20 Computer modelling 379

20.1 Introduction 379
20.2 Why use computer models? 380
20.3 Environment datasets 380
20.3.1 Topographic datasets 381
20.3.1.1 Availability of Digital Terrain Models 382
20.3.1.2 Accuracy, precision and resolution 384
20.3.1.3 Map coordinates 386
20.3.1.4 Profile extraction 387
20.3.1.5 Earth curvature 388
20.3.2 Clutter datasets 389
20.3.2.1 Land-use 391
20.3.2.2 Buildings 392
20.3.3 IDWM 393
20.3.4 Meteorological data 394
20.4 Monte Carlo simulation 396
20.4.1 The Monte Carlo method 396
20.4.2 Design issues 398
 Contents xv

20.4.2.1 Number of iterations 398

20.4.2.2 Random number generator 399
20.4.2.3 Probability distributions 399
20.4.2.4 Computational efficiency issues 400
20.5 Model testing 401
20.5.1 Internal consistency 402
20.5.2 Comparisons with other models and measurement data 402
20.5.3 Performance metrics 405
References 410

21 Numerically intensive propagation prediction methods 411

21.1 Introduction 411
21.1.1 Intractability of exact solutions 411
21.1.2 General remarks on numerical methods 412
21.1.3 Chapter outline 412
21.2 Integral equation methods 412
21.2.1 Derivation of integral equation 412
21.2.2 Assumptions made in the derivation of the
integral equation 415
21.2.3 Numerical evaluation of integral equations 415
21.3 Parabolic equation methods 416
21.3.1 Derivation of the parabolic equation 417
21.3.2 Summary of assumptions and approximations 419
21.3.3 Parabolic equation marching (I) – the split-step
fast Fourier transform method 420
21.3.4 Parabolic equation marching (II) – finite difference
implementation 421
21.3.5 Parabolic equation conclusions 425
21.3.6 Sample applications of the parabolic equation method 425
21.4 Ray-tracing methods 427
21.4.1 Ray-tracing elements 427
21.4.2 Field strength calculation 429
References 430

Index 433
 Preface

This edition updates and continues the series of books based on the residential
courses on radiowave propagation organised by the IEE/IET.
The first course was held in 1974, with lectures by H. Page, P. Matthews,
D. Parsons, M.W. Gough, P.A. Watson, E. Hickin, T. Pratt, P. Knight, T.B. Jones,
P.A. Bradley, B. Burgess and H. Rishbeth.
That was seen as a standalone course, but the need was recognised again and
led to a succession of courses held every two or three years starting in 1986. A book
Radiowave Propagation, edited by M.P.M. Hall and L.W. Barclay, was published
by the IEE in 1989 based on the 1986 course.
Following the fifth course in 1994, the lecture notes were published by the IEE
in 1996 in Propagation of Radiowaves, edited by M.P.M. Hall, L.W. Barclay
and M.T. Hewitt. This was succeeded by a second edition in 2003, edited by Les
Barclay, based on the eighth course held in 2000.
This third edition is loosely based on the 12th course organised by the IET in
2007, but because of the passage of time since that course it includes more recent
updating.
An understanding of radiowave propagation is fundamental to the effective use
of radio for radiocommunication1. As the demand for higher data rates and higher
reliability continues, applications develop and new applications are introduced, so the
need for an extended and more detailed knowledge and for a predictive capability
based on the requirements of the application continues to grow. Within the con-
straints of a one-week lecture course and a one volume book it is not possible to be
entirely comprehensive, but it is intended that the wide range of topics presented
cover all parts of the radio spectrum where there is significant current interest.
Studies of radiowave propagation might be considered in two distinct ways:
either as a purely scientific endeavour probing the interaction of radiowaves with
the atmosphere and the earth’s surface features; or as a largely empirical approach
describing propagation over a path based on past observations. The contents of this
book are intended for radiowave propagation engineers with a firm basis on
established theory, and on extensive databanks of measurement, leading towards

1
The definition of radiocommunication includes all applications where information in any form is
communicated, including services between fixed stations, mobile services, data communication at short
ranges, broadcasting, radar and radio navigation, radio-astronomy, etc.
 Preface xvii

the most appropriate methods and procedures for assessing the estimated perfor-
mance of radio systems. ITU-R Study Group 3 (see section 1.15), through its
annual meetings and the progressive review and updating of Recommendations,
probably provides the best and most comprehensive set of propagation information,
and this book seeks to put that information into context.

NOTE: In this book there are frequent references to Recommendations made by the radio-
communication sector of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R). These
Recommendations are subject to progressive improvement and revision. The revision is
indicated by a number suffixed to the number of the Recommendation, and a list giving the
latest revision is given on the ITU website from where the Recommendations may be
downloaded; see Chapter 1.
It is customary to refer to Recommendation by giving just the Recommendation num-
ber, without stating the revision number. This is always meant to imply that the reader should
take care to use the most recent version available.
 Chapter 1
Introduction
Les Barclay

1.1 Radio waves

It may be unnecessary, these days, to say that information has value. The success of
some Internet companies demonstrates what can be done just by dealing in infor-
mation. However, information only has value if it is delivered to where it is needed.
This requires the propagation of data and the use of bandwidth over which to send
the data.
To a great extent, information may be delivered over wired systems and networks –
pairs of wires, coaxial cables, optical fibres. Using something like the international
telephone network, intelligent routing may be employed to direct the delivery of the
data. For wired systems, the signalling protocols and the terminal equipment char-
acteristics are essentially only a matter of agreement between the operators, and the
distortion due to propagation – the channel transfer function (CTF) – on a connection
will be largely constant and may be compensated by adding components to the line,
by modifying the signal waveform or by using error correcting coding. For these
types of systems, there is in principle no limit to the available bandwidth; if a cable
becomes ‘full’ it is only necessary to run a second cable in parallel.
However, such wired systems cannot easily deal with the issue of mobility – the
need to deliver the information to wherever the recipient happens to be. This may be
achieved by short-range wireless ‘tails’ onto wired systems (cell phones, Wi-Fi, etc.)
or by longer-range wireless systems such as those to ships and aircraft. So radio is
essential and then the considerations are very different. Radio systems also have
advantages where mobility is not the prime requirement, offering rapid and lower-
cost deployment and flexibility. When radio is used, there are limitations for band-
width (or at least for data rate, when spread spectrum modulation is used), and there
is only one radio spectrum that cannot be duplicated when overloaded. There are also
problems in achieving good-quality service since the CTF has major variability
across the radio spectrum and with time and location.
Radio waves are defined in the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
Radio Regulations as ‘electromagnetic waves of frequencies arbitrarily lower than
3,000 GHz, propagated in space without artificial guide’. This covers the frequency
range where the characteristics of propagation in the troposphere permit
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