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EASTERN FORTRESS
A Military History of Hong Kong, 1840–1970

Kwong Chi Man and Tsoi Yiu Lun

EASTERN FORTRESS
 EASTERN FORTRESS

A MILITARY HISTORY OF HONG KONG, 1840–1970

KWONG CHI MAN AND TSOI YIU LUN

Hong Kong University Press
The University of Hong Kong
Pokfulam Road
Hong Kong
www.hkupress.org

© Hong Kong University Press 2014

ISBN 978-988-8208-70-8 (Hardback)

ISBN 978-988-8208-71-5 (Paperback)

All rights reserved. No portion of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or
any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the
publisher.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed and bound by Paramount Printing Co., Ltd. in Hong Kong, China
Contents

List of Illustrations ix
Foreword xi
Preface xv
Note on Transliteration and Measurements xix
Abbreviations xxi
1 Introduction 1
Themes and Structure 1
Sources 2
Military Geography of Hong Kong 3
2 A British Foothold in China, 1839–1861 9
The First Opium War and the Taking of Hong Kong 9
Early Defence and Garrison, 1841–1861 10
Hong Kong during the Second Opium War, 1856–1861 14
Conclusion 16
3 Hong Kong in an Imperial Defence System, 1861–1883 17
Increasing Strategic Importance, Land Use and Military Contribution 17
Hong Kong and Imperial Defence 19
The First Steps: The Milne Committee of 1878 21
Hong Kong and Imperial Defence: The Carnarvon Report, 1879–1883 26
Conclusion 32
4 Hong Kong Defence during the Age of Empires, 1883–1919 33
Strategic Role of Hong Kong during the Age of Imperialism 33
Military Contribution, Venereal Disease and Plague 35
Modernization of the Batteries, 1883–1912 39
The Defence Schemes, 1889–1901 46
The Acquisition of the New Territories and the Six-Day War of 1899 49
Turning to Landward Defence, 1901–1914 52
Hong Kong during the First World War and the Kowloon Defence Line 65
Conclusion 68
5 Treaty, Air Force and Landward Defence, 1920–1939 71
British Imperial Defence, 1919–1939 71
vi Contents

Impacts of the Washington Treaty 74

The Interwar Garrison 79
Hong Kong as an Offensive Base: Defence Reviews of 1927–1930 82
The Decision to Build the Gin Drinker’s Line, 1931–1935 89
The Hong Kong Defence Scheme of 1936 94
Hong Kong as “Outpost”: The Far Eastern Appreciation of 1937 and the Refortification
Plan of 1938 96
Defences in Hong Kong, 1935–1941 107
Conclusion 115
6 The International Situation and Hong Kong Defence, 1939–1941 117
The European War and Hong Kong Defence Policy 117
The Fall of France and Its Impact 120
Peace through Deterrence: The Strategy of Sir Robert Brooke-Popham 126
Collective Security: The Actions of Other Allied Powers 131
Canadian Reinforcement and the Rapid Deterioration of US-Japan Relations 134
Alerts before the War 140
Conclusion 141
7 Hong Kong before the War 143
Hong Kong Unprepared? 143
Overview of Internal Situation 144
British, Chinese and Japanese Intelligence Activities in Pre-war Hong Kong 146
Economic Contribution of Hong Kong during the Early Stages of the War 151
War Preparation by the Hong Kong Government 154
Conclusion 159
8 The Fall of Hong Kong, December 1941 161
The Larger Context of the Hong Kong Operation of 1941 161
The Arrival of Brigadier Lawson and the Second Canadian Reinforcement 162
British Redeployment in November 1941 164
Japanese Planning and Deployment 167
The Battle of Hong Kong 1941 171
The Battle of Hong Kong: A Military Assessment 222
9 Hong Kong under the Japanese Occupation, 1942–1945 225
Japanese Defence of Hong Kong and Allied Counterattacks 225
The British Army Aid Group and the East River Column 230
Conclusion 234
10 The Defence of Hong Kong during the Early Stages of the Cold War, 235
1945–1960
The Cold War and British Strategic Contraction 235
Continuing the Policy of Deterrence, 1946–1950 237
Anglo-American Cooperation on Hong Kong Defence, 1950–1960 242
The Post-Korean War Garrison 250
The Final Tests: The 1956 and 1967 Riots and Aftermath 255
Conclusion 259
Contents vii

11 Conclusions 261
The Strategic Role of Hong Kong and Its Defence 261
Making Defence Policies 264
Military and Urban Development 265
The Garrison and Hong Kong 265
Summary 266
Appendices 269
Appendix I: Bibliographical Review 269
Appendix II: British Command Structure in Hong Kong 271
Appendix III: British Army Commanders at Hong Kong, 1843–1960 272
Appendix IV: Commanders of China Station, 1865–1941 274
Notes 277
References 325
Index 341
Illustrations

Figures
1. Hong Kong in Asia 4
2. Hong Kong in 1941 5
3. Early defence of Hong Kong, 1850 11
4. Long-term defence layout proposed by the Milne Committee 23
5. Defence layout proposed by Col. Crossman, 1881 30
6. RN submarines being repaired in the Royal Naval Dockyard, 1910s 39
7. French armoured cruiser Montcalm, an improved version of Dupuy de Lôme,
built in 1898 40
8. Coastal guns in Hong Kong, 1886 41
9. Coastal batteries in Hong Kong, 1906 44
10. Guns proposed by the Owen Committee, 1906–1912 45
11. Line drawings of HMS Swiftsure and HMS Triumph, 1900 58
12. Anderson’s proposed Kowloon defence line, 1911 60
13. HMS Medway and the submarines of the China Station, c. 1930s 75
14. HMS Hermes in dry dock in Hong Kong 76
15. The British Geisha House (Brothel) on Stonecutters Island, 1935 81
16. Layout of the Gin Drinker’s Line 108
17. Shing Mun Redoubt, December 1941 109
18. Pillbox disguised as a house (PB 305) 110
19. Removing 9.2-inch guns from Devil’s Peak 112
20. Coastal and AA guns in Hong Kong, 1941 113
21. Japanese plan against Hong Kong, 1941 169
22. Japanese invasion of Hong Kong, 8 December 1941 173
23. Situation near Shing Mun, 9 December 1941 175
24. Evacuation of the Mainland Brigade, 11–13 December 1941 181
25. British defence of Hong Kong Island East, 14–18 December 1941 187
26. Japanese landing on Hong Kong Island, 18 December 1941 196
27. Japanese penetration, early morning, 19 December 1941 199
28. Battle of Wong Nai Chung Gap, 08:30–12:00, 19 December 1941 200
x Illustrations

29. British counterattack on Hong Kong Island, 15:00–04:00, 19–20 December

1941 203
30. Japanese advance renewed, morning, 21 December 1941 207
31. Wallis’s counterattack, 21 December 1941 210
32. Final position, 15:00, 25 December 1941 220
33. Cartoon mocking the inability of the British to hold Hong Kong, 1967 252

Tables
1. Distance between Hong Kong and major ports in Asia 4
2. Probability of foggy days noted in the Defence Scheme of 1910 7
3. Hong Kong garrison, May–June 1854 14
4. Temporary armaments for the stations suggested by the Milne Committee 26
5. Garrisons for the stations outlined by the Milne Committee 26
6. Proposals to the Carnarvon Committee, 1879–1881 28
7. Proposals to the Carnarvon Committee (garrison size), 1879–1881 28
8. Proposals to the Carnarvon Committee (cost in £), 1879–1881 29
9. Naval strength of the major powers, 1887–1891 32
10. British dry-docks East of Suez, 1914 34
11. British, French and Russian naval strength in Asia, 1902 36
12. Military contribution of Hong Kong, 1892–1917 (in HKD) 36
13. Comparison of RMLs, RBLs and BLs, 1880–1890s 41
14. Asian port defences, as estimated by Lambton, 1908 54
15. The Kowloon–New Territories Line designed by Gen. Anderson, 1911 61
16. The Island Line designed by Gen. Anderson, 1911 62
17. Hong Kong landward defence, as envisaged by Maj. Gen. Anderson, 1913 64
18. Major units of the China Station, December 1919 75
19. Major units of the China Station, June 1939 76
20. Budget for the improvement of Hong Kong defence (Army), 1936–1940 93
21. Sections of the Gin Drinker’s Line, 1935 107
22. Coastal defences on Hong Kong Island, 1938 113
23. Hong Kong-built Empire ships 152
24. Minesweepers built in Hong Kong, 1941 153
25. New departments of the Hong Kong government, 1937–1941 156
26. Japanese plan against Hong Kong Island, 18 December 1941 192
27. Order of battle of the 2nd China Fleet, January 1942 226
28. Japanese army units near Hong Kong, August 1945 230
29. Guerrilla activities as recorded by the 2nd China Fleet, 1942–1945 234
30. Military expenditure of the Hong Kong government, 1949–1970 251
31. Hong Kong Defence Force, civil defence units, as well as auxiliary forces
strength and nationality, 1959 254
Foreword

The closure to Britain’s involvement in the affairs of Hong Kong, signalled by the
handover of sovereignty to the People’s Republic of China in 1997 and marking
the definite end to any British pretensions to a continued military role in East Asia,
prompts the question of how we should look back on Hong Kong’s military role.
The authors of Eastern Fortress take up this challenge with aplomb. In analyzing
Hong Kong’s history as a British military outpost, they look at the issue from both
the British and the local Hong Kong perspectives. They base their analysis on a wide
reading in British, American and Japanese archives as well as a thorough familiarity
with military history more generally. The result is a study which not only is hugely
well informed and superbly documented, but also places the history of Hong Kong
in a wide context, making it relevant to students of military affairs, British imperial
history, and the history of Hong Kong. It is a real achievement and will become the
starting point for any further research on Hong Kong’s military role.
As Eastern Fortress makes clear, Hong Kong was for Britain an asset but also a lia-
bility. Hong Kong became a British colony as a result of the 1838–1842 Opium War
when the British fought their way into Guangzhou and blocked the Grand Canal to
stop taxes arriving in Beijing, thus compelling the Qing dynasty to sign the Treaty of
Nanjing, the first of the Unequal Treaties as they became known later. If perceived
insults to British dignity were one cause of the Opium War, it was also the case that
for its economic health Britain needed to build up a trade network in “the East” to
make up for the loss of its colonies in “the West” as a result of the late 18th century
revolutions in the Americas. Until the Napoleonic Wars were over, little could be
done. But once they were and the industrial revolution had begun to deliver eco-
nomic and financial success, as well as better weapons, including the Nemesis, the
first steam-driven naval vessel put to devastating effect during the Opium War,
Britain set about the task with energy and determination. So Hong Kong became
the easternmost major bastion of British power, a position that would give Britain a
role in South China and East Asian affairs for a century and a half.
xii Foreword

But Hong Kong also made the British military position vulnerable to overexten-
sion. Hong Kong was far away from Britain, which meant that until the arrival of the
telegraph, London could do little if local commanders took action off their own bat,
as they did during the 1856–1860 Arrow War. During much of the 19th century
many soldiers died from tropical diseases to which they were not immune. The
acquisition of Kowloon and the New Territories toward the end of the 19th century
in some ways weakened the British position, as it now had a land border with China
that was difficult to defend. And Hong Kong Island was always vulnerable to market
strikes, as became clear, for instance, during the rise of the Nationalists in the 1920s.
To make Hong Kong militarily secure, Britain would have had to occupy a signifi-
cant swathe of land and invest heavily in building up its military presence in it. The
occupation of Guangzhou during the Arrow War was difficult, demonstrating that it
was one thing to defeat Qing forces in a pitched battle but quite another to occupy
and govern a large city. This, and the 1857 Indian Uprising, ensured that little
enthusiasm remained for building large colonies in China. During the Opium War,
Hong Kong was acquired in a bout of British aggression, but after the Arrow War
it became a bit of a bluff, depending more on the threat than the actuality of force.
That threat was worth maintaining because of the influence it gave Britain in East
Asian affairs, and as such it proved an investment that paid handsome dividends.
But Britain never really wanted to put in the effort, or spend the treasure, to turn
Hong Kong into a true fortress: too difficult, too far away, too risky, and too costly.
The great strength of Eastern Fortress is its broad approach to examining how
these realities worked themselves out over time. This is not a narrow military history,
focusing on the number of troops stationed in Hong Kong at any given time, the
type of arms these forces possessed, the ships the British navy maintained in port,
or the aircraft the RAF deployed at the Kai Tak aerodrome. Nor is it an account of
a single war such as the Opium War, the Arrow War, or the Japanese conquest of
Hong Kong in December 1941. Rather, Eastern Fortress looks at the longue durée
of the British military involvement in Hong Kong, which is analyzed consistently,
and convincingly, from its position in British imperial strategy. It tells us about the
thinking of military strategists and political leaders in London, showing how their
views were shaped by, of course, imperial strategy, as well as available resources,
personalities, and British diplomatic relations. Importantly, it demonstrates that
while the Hong Kong government was usually consulted, military strategy trumped
local political imperatives. This broad perspective allows the authors to bring out an
important tension in British imperial strategy, namely the rivalry between Singapore
and Hong Kong for preferment in British strategy. Singapore became increasingly
Foreword xiii

favoured as India, a colony, outpaced China, a semi-colony, not only economically

but also in the British public imagination and in the British official mind.
Eastern Fortress is path-breaking in another way as well. Military history is a field
that has focused on big topics and big events such as, in the case of Western his-
torians, the 19th century arms race, the causes of the First World War, the impact
of industrialization on the conduct of war, the Battle of Stalingrad, and the emer-
gence of total war. In Chinese history, while the Opium War has been studied at
great length, for more recent periods it has been the War of Resistance, the Boxer
Rebellion, and the 1894–1895 Sino-Japanese War that have received far more atten-
tion. Neither Western nor Chinese historians have paid much attention to Hong
Kong, in the case of the first probably because they considered it largely irrelevant
and in the case of the latter perhaps because they did not consider it a legitimate
topic in Chinese history, or perhaps because Hong Kong’s military history was
regarded as somewhat embarrassing. Both will find food for thought in Eastern
Fortress. The book forms an important illustration of the fact that military history
can be enriched, and enlivened, by delving into its backwaters.
Hong Kong has many identities, some of them contradictory, including as a free
port, a haven for capitalist enterprise, a centre for smuggling, and an example of
British law-based governance. The significance of its development as being a British
military outpost, however, is one of the many thought-provoking suggestions of
Eastern Fortress. The ways that British military needs shaped the pattern of its urban
development as well as sanitary and hygiene regulation, that military life was fre-
quently and visibly interwoven with public life in Hong Kong, and that the Hong
Kong garrison was important in maintaining stability and order in the city, includ-
ing during the Cold War, form important insights.
For the foreseeable future, Hong Kong will not have a serious military role. The
garrison of the People’s Liberation Army now stationed in Hong Kong is small and,
largely confined to barracks, it remains inconspicuous. Whether many decades from
now, when the arrangements struck for the 1997 transfer of sovereignty become
obsolescent, Eastern Fortress will be followed by a study with the word “Chinese”
in the title is an open, and intriguing, question for the future. But that its military
inconspicuousness today is not the natural order of things is one important lesson
of this study.

Hans van de Ven

October 2013
Preface

It is truly gratifying to see the defenders of Hong Kong from all nationalities prop-
erly commemorated every November at the Cenotaph in Central.
This book is inspired by Between Two Oceans: A Military History of Singapore
(1999), a comprehensive study of the military history of an island nation with a
similar experience to that of Hong Kong.
We hope our work can shed new light on the various aspects of the military
history of British Hong Kong and, more importantly, elucidate the strategic-military
importance of Hong Kong during a significant part of its modern history. During
the process of writing this book, we were delighted to find that the source materials
for this topic in the relevant languages were far richer than we had ever expected. As
many parts of the military history of Hong Kong have yet to be studied systemati-
cally, most of the content of this book relies on primary historical sources.
We would like to thank our teachers, colleagues and friends. Without their assis-
tance and support, this book could not have been finished. Prof. Yip Hon Ming of the
Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK), Prof. Hans van de Ven of Cambridge
University, Prof. Rana Mitter of Oxford University, Prof. Frederick Cheung Hok
Ming of CUHK, Prof. Chow Kai Wing, Prof. Lee Kam Keung, Prof. Mak King Sang
and Dr. Wong Man Kong of Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU) and Dr. James
Stewart, Jr. all guided and supported this project, providing invaluable advice and
encouragement throughout the sometimes arduous writing process. Naval histo-
rian Prof. Gerald Jordan (1932–2012) urged one of the authors of this volume to
pursue an academic career; his words thereby changed the life of that author.
The completion of this book would have been impossible without the generous
support provided by the Advanced Institute for Contemporary China Studies at
HKBU. Dr. Karen Xu Zhihua, Dr. Mark Chow Man Kwong, Ms. Cavis Choi, Ms.
Teresa Tsang and Ms. Jane Lee rendered crucial assistance to the authors. Ms. Ada
Au-Yeung Pui Man’s map work elevated the readability and lucidity of this work to
a whole new level. Unless otherwise stated, the maps were all drawn by the expert
hands of Ada.
xvi Preface

We owe a lot to a number of friends who provided vital criticisms and sugges-
tions. Among them, Mr. Dennis Cheung Tsun Lam followed the entire writing
process and shared his thoughts both as an expert in the field and a thoughtful
reader. Mr. Tim Ko and Mr. Bill Lake very generously provided us with rare pho-
tographs on the military history of Hong Kong, and offered invaluable advice. We
are also extremely fortunate to have been aided by a number of distinguished indi-
viduals who served in the British military forces, including the late Mr. Fung Ying
Kei MBE, Mr. Peter Choi, Dan Waters, Capt. Ronald Taylor, and Capt. James Chan.
The late Mr. Chan On Kwok, son of the legendary Admiral Chan Chak, provided
us with Admiral Chan’s diary, which was key to our understanding of the Battle of
Hong Kong in 1941. Ms. Gillian Wallis and Ms. Myf Payne, relatives of Brigadier
General Cedric Wallis, kindly shared with us extremely rare photos of Wallis. The
Hong Kong Ex-Servicemen’s Assocation and the Hong Kong World War II Veterans
Association also rendered vital support in our work. We would especially like to
thank Capt. Lam Ping Wai, Capt. Derek Leung Hing Chuen, Capt. Kenny Yau
Wai Kee, Mr. Jimmy Kong Kim Hung, Mr. Sin Ting-kwong, Mr. Famby Kwan, Mr.
Bernard Yuen, Mr. Lo Dip Koon, Mr. Danny Chung and Mr. Danny Wong.
Mr. Christopher Young and Mr. Michael Broom of the Royal Asiatic Society
(Hong Kong Branch), Mr. Chan Sui-jeung (author of East River Column), Mr.
Philip Snow (author of The Fall of Hong Kong), Mr. Tony Banham (author of Not the
Slightest Chance), Mr. Tim Luard (author of Escape from Hong Kong), Mr. Geoffrey
Emerson (author of Hong Kong Internment), Mr. Bill Lake (producer of Battle
for a Barren Rock), Mr. Richard Hide (chair of HongKong Escape Re-enactment
Organization HERO), Prof. Lawrence Lai Wai-chung and Prof. Ho Chi Wing
(authors of various works on the Gin Drinker’s Line, the Shing Mun Redoubt, and
the battle for Wong Nai Chung Gap), Mr. Choi Chohong, Mr. Jerry Lee (grandson
of Mrs. C. R. Lee), Mr. James O’Neill (grandson of John Laird), Mr. Jeff Lee and Mr.
Yim Chi Tak all generously shared their thoughts with us about this work. During
the process of writing, we were also fortunate to be able to learn from Ms. Susanna
Siu of the Hong Kong Museum of History, Ms. Rosa Yau and Ms. April Yip of the
Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence, Ms. Kitty But of the Hong Kong Maritime
Museum, Dr. Lam Kam Yuen of the Hong Kong Heritage Museum, Ms. Ada Yau,
Mr. Ray Ma and Mr. Jeffer Mak of the Antiques and Monuments Office.
On countless occasions, the authors received vital assistance from archivists
and librarians in Hong Kong, the United Kingdom, Japan and Australia. In par-
ticular, the authors would like to thank the National Archives in Kew, Ms. Diana
Manipud and Ms. Lianne Smith of the Liddell-Hart Center for Military Archives at
King’s College, University of London, Ms. Jessica Lau and Mr. Bernard Hui of the
Preface xvii

Public Records Office Hong Kong, the staff of the Japan Center for Asian Historical
Records, Ms. Kiya Mika of the National Diet Library, and Mr. Lai Kai Yan of the
Hong Kong Public Library. Special thanks should also be extended to Mr. Anthony
Wong and Ms. Furihata Chiaki, who helped the authors collect part of the Japanese
archival sources.
Everyone mentioned above deserves all the credit of this work, while the authors
alone are responsible for all its faults and defects.
Finally, one of the authors would like to thank his wife, Florence, for her patience
and continuous support.
This book is dedicated to the Chinese, British, Indian, Canadian and other
nationalities who served, fought and died to protect Hong Kong.

Kwong Chi Man

Tsoi Yiu Lun
April 2013
Note on Transliteration and Measurements

Throughout this work we have used the pinyin system for Chinese and the Hepburn
system for Japanese names and terms. There are exceptions to this rule as some
names are better known in other romanization systems: Chiang Kai-shek (instead
of Jiang Jieshi in pinyin), Kuomintang, KMT (instead of Guomindang, GMD), and
Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan).
As for measurements, since the British usually used inches, yards and miles
during the period concerned, conversion to decimal measurements such as millime-
tre, metre and kilometre is provided in parentheses. Many military measurements
appear in short form (e.g. pounder as pdr.). A full list of abbreviations is provided.
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