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Journal of International Business
Special
Issue

1/2004
Management
International Review
David M. Brock/Julian Birkinshaw (Guest Editors)
Contemporary Iss'ues in Multinational Strategy
and Structure
Note from the Guest Editors
David M. Brock/Julian Birkinshaw
Multinational Strategy and Structure:
A Review and Research Agenda
Sunil Venaik/David F. Midgleyffimothy M. Devinney
Integration-Responsiveness Pressures
Tony Edwards/Anthony Ferner
Reverse Diffusion in Multinationals
Brent B. Allred/K. Scott Swan
Global Versus Multidomestic:
Culture's Consequences on Innovation
Stephen B. Tallman/J. Michael Geringer/David M. Olsen
Resources, Strategy, Structure and Performance
among Japanese MNE's
Mark V. Cannice/Roger (Rongxin) Chen/John D. Daniels
Managing International Technology Transfer Risk

D 21247 GABLER
ISBN 978-3-409-12544-4 ISBN 978-3-322-90999-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-322-90999-2
 EDITORIAL BOARD
Professor Raj Aggarwal, Kent State University, Kent - U.S.A.
Professor Jeffrey S. Arpan, University of South Carolina, Columbia - U.S.A.
Professor Daniel van Den aulcke, Universiteit Antwerpen - Belgium
Professor John A. Cantwell, Rutgers University, Newark - U.S.A.
Professor S. Tamer Cavusgil, Michigan State University, East Lansing - U.S.A.
Professor Frederick D.S. Choi, New York University - U.S.A.
Professor Farok Contractor, Rutgers University, Newark - U.S.A.
Professor John D. Daniels, University of Miami, Coral Gables - U.S.A.
Professor Peter J. Dowling, University of Canberra - Australia
Professor Santiago Garcia Echevarria, Universidad de Alcala de Henares, Madrid - Spain
Professor Lawrence A. Gordon, University of Maryland, College Park - U.S.A.
Professor Sidney 1. Gray, University of Sydney - Australia
Professor Geir Gripsrud, Norwegian School of Management, Sandvika - Norway
Professor Jean-Franyois Hennart, Tilburg University - The Netherlands
Professor Georges Hirsch, Centre Franco-Vietnamien de Formation a la gestion, Paris - France
Professor Andrew Inkpen, Thunderbird, The American Graduate School of International
Management, Glendale - U.S.A.
Professor Eugene D. Jaffe, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan - Israel
Professor Erdener Kaynak, Pennsylvania State University, Middletown - U.S.A.
Professor Yui Kimura, University of Tsukuba, Tokyo - Japan
Professor Michael Kutschker, Katholische Universitat Eichstatt, Ingolstadt - Germany
Professor Reijo Luostarinen, Helsinki School of Economics - Finland
Professor Klaus Macharzina, Universitat Hohenheim, Stuttgart - Germany
Professor Roger Mansfield, Cardiff Business School- United Kingdom
Professor Mark Mendenhall, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga - U.S.A.
Professor Rolf Mirus, University of Alberta, Edmonton - Canada
Professor Michael H. Moffett, American Graduate School, Phoenix - U.S.A.
Professor Krzysztof Y. Obloj, University of Warsaw - Poland
Professor Lars Oxelheim, Lund University - Sweden
Professor Ki-An Park, Kyung Hee University, Seoul- Korea
Professor Robert D. Pearce, University of Reading - United Kingdom
Professor Lee Radebaugh, Brigham Young University, Provo - U.S.A.
Professor Edwin RUhli, Universitat ZUrich - Switzerland
Professor Alan M. Rugman, Indiana University, Bloomington, U.S.A.
Professor Rakesh B. Sambharya, Rutgers University, Camden, U.S.A.
Professor Reinhart Schmidt, Universitat Halle-Wittenberg - Germany
Professor Hans Schollhammer, University of California, Los Angeles - U.S.A.
Professor Oded Shenkar, The Ohio State University, Columbus - U.S.A.
Professor Vitor Corado Simoes, Universidade Tecnica de Lisboa - Portugal
Professor John Stopford, 6 Chalcot Square, London NWI 8YB - United Kingdom
Professor Daniel P. Sullivan, University of Delaware, Newark - U.S.A.
Professor Norihiko Suzuki, International Christian University, Tokyo - Japan
Professor Stephen Bruce Tallmann, University of Utah, Salt Lake City - U.S.A.
Professor George Tesar, Umea University, Umea - Sweden
Professor Jose de la Torre, Rorida International University, Miami - U.S.A.
Professor Rosalie L. Tung, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC - Canada
Professor Jean-Claude Usunier, University of Lousanne, Lousanne - Dorigny - Switzerland
Professor Alain Charles Verbeke, Vrije Universiteit Brussel- Belgium
Professor Lawrence S. Welch, Mt Eliza Business School, Melbourne, Australia
Professor Martin K. Welge, UniversiUit Dortmund - Germany
Professor Bernard Yin Yeung, New York University - U.S.A.
Professor Masaru Yoshimori, Yokohama National University - Japan

BOOK REVIEW EDITOR

Professor Dr. Johann Engelhard, UniversiUit Bamberg - Germany

EDITOR
MANAGEMENT INTERNATIONAL REVIEW, Professor Dr. Profs. h.c. Dr. h.c. Klaus Machar:ina,
Universitiit Hohenheim (510 E), Schloss-Osthof-Ost, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany, Tel. (0711) 459-2908,
Fax (0711) 459-3288, E-mail: [email protected]. Internet: http://wwlV.uni-hohenheim.de!-mir
Assistant Editors: Professor Dr. Michael-Jorg Oesterle. Ulliversitiit Bremen. Germany. Professor Dr.
Joachim Wolf, Universitiit Kiel, Germany. Editorial office: Mrs. Sylvia Ludwig
 •
mlr
Management
International Review
© Gabler Verlag 2004

VOLUME 44 SPECIAL ISSUE 2004/1

CONTENTS

Note from the Guest Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

David M. Brock/Julian Birkinshaw

Multinational Strategy and Structure:

A Review and Research Agenda ................................. 5

Sunil Venaik/David F. MidgleyfTimothy M. Devinney

A New Perspective on the Integration-Responsiveness Pressures

Confronting Multinational Firms .................................. 15

Tony Edwards/Anthony Ferner

Multinationals, Reverse Diffusion and National Business Systems 49

Brent B. Allred/K. Scott Swan

Global Versus Multidomestic: Culture's Consequences on Innovation 81

Stephen B. Tallman/J. Michael Geringer/David M. Olsen

Contextual Moderating Effects and the Relationship of Firm-Specific

Resources, Strategy, Structure and Performance among Japanese
Multinational Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 107

Mark V. Cannice/ Roger (Rongxin) Chen/John D. Daniels

Managing International Technology Transfer Risk: Alternatives and

Complements to Ownership Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 129

mlr vol. 44 . Special Issue . 200411

 GUIDELINE FOR AUTHORS
• welcomes articles on original theoretical contributions, empirical research, state-of-
mlr
the-art surveys or reports on recent developments in the areas of
a) International Business b) Transnational Corporations c) Intercultural Management d) Stra-
tegic Management e) Business Policy.
Manuscripts are reviewed with the understanding that they are substantially new, have not
been previously published in whole (including book chapters) or in part (including exhibits),
have not been previously accepted for publication, are not under consideration by any other
publisher, and will not be submitted elsewhere until a decision is reached regarding their
publication in mir. The only exception is papers in conference proceedings, which we treat
as work-in-progress.
Contributions should be submitted in English language in a Microsoft or compatible format
bye-mail [email protected]. The complete text including the
references, tables and figures should as a rule not exceed 25 pages in a usual setting (ap-
proximately 7000 words). Reply papers should normally not exceed 1500 words. The title
page should include the following elements: Author(s) name, Heading of the article, Abstract
(two sections of about 30 words each), Key Results (20 words), Author's line (author's
name, academic title, position and affiliation) and on the bottom a proposal for an abbrevi-
ated heading on the front cover of the journal.
Submitted papers must be written according to mir's formal guidelines. Only those manu-
scripts can enter the reviewing process which adhere to our guidelines. Authors are requested
to
- use endnotes for clarification sparingly. References to the literature are indicated in the
text by author's name and year of publication in parentheses, e.g. (ReitspergerlDaniei 1990,
p. 210, Eiteman 1989). The references should be listed in alphabetical order at the end of
the text. They should include full bibliographical details and be cited in the following
manner: e.g.
Reitsperger, W. D.lDaniel, S. J., Dynamic Manufacturing: A Comparison of Attitudes
in the U.S. and Japan, Management International Review, 30, 1990, pp. 203-216.
Eiteman, D. K, Financial Sourcing, in Macharzina, K/Welge, M. K (eds.), Hand-
worterbuch Export und Internationale Unternehmung, Stuttgart: Poeschel 1989,
pp.602-621.
Stopford, J. M./Wells, L. T. Jr., Managing the Multinational Enterprise, New York:
Basic Books 1972.
- avoid terms that may be interpreted denigrating to ethnic or other groups.
- be especially careful in dealing with gender. Traditional customs such as " ... the manager
wishes that his interest ..." can favor the acceptance of inequality were none exist. The
use of plural pronouns is preferred. If this is impossible, the term "he or she" or "he/she"
can be used.
In the case of publication authors are supplied one complimentary copy of the issue and 30
off-prints free of charge. Additional copies may be ordered prior to printing. Overseas ship-
ment is by boat; air-delivery will be charged extra.
The author agrees, that hislher article is published not only in this journal but that it can also
be reproduced by the publisher and his licensees through license agreement in other journals
(also in translated versions), through reprint in omnibus volumes (i.e. for anniversary edi-
tions of the journal or the publisher or in subject volumes), through longer extracts in books
of the publisher also for advertising purposes, through multiplication and distribution on
CD ROM or other data media, through storage on data bases, their transmission and retrieval,
during the time span of the copyright laws on the article at home and abroad.
--- - - - - - - ------------
 •
mlr
Management
International Review
© Gabler Verlag 2004

Note from the Guest Editors

Like all multinational enterprises, this special issue took substantial amounts of
integration and responsiveness. As editors our job was to integrate the work of
the authors and reviewers. Our job would not have been possible, however, were
it not for the responsiveness of the authors - to the Call for papers and later to
reviews - and of the many dedicated reviewers upon whom we called. This note
is mainly to reflect on the processes we followed in editing this edition, divulge
the usual acceptance-rate statistics, and finally - but most importantly - to ac-
knowledge the reviewers.
The Call for this special issue went out in mid-2001, with a submission
deadline of 28 February 2002. We received 23 manuscripts, 18 of which were
sent out to reviewers. The other five were considered unsuitable relative to the
Call for the Special issue which specified empirical work within the areas of
Strategy and Structure of Multinational Enterprises. After the first review round
eight of the 18 were invited to resubmit, nine were rejected, and one was with-
drawn by the authors. In the second round two papers were accepted, two re-
jected, and the remaining four invited to undergo a further revision. Three of
these four were subsequently accepted. Thus five papers are being published
here, giving a net acceptance rate of 22 percent.
All submissions, reviews, and letters back and forth among editors, authors
and reviewers were sent bye-mailed Word files. Most papers were sent to two
reviewers, but in six of the 18 cases we called upon a third reviewer's input
to help clarify a decision or to provide authors with additional guidance.
Reviewers were usually asked to respond within one month, and we undertook
to tum each submission around within three months. We stayed within this
three-month limit in 100% of cases, with most decision letters going back to
authors closer to the two-month mark. The Special Issue context demands
relatively fast processing of reviews and revisions. On several occasions we
sincerely apologized to authors for the fact that we could not persevere with
their papers under these relatively tight deadlines, but expressed the confi-
dence that their work would be published in due course in 'regular' journal
issues.

mlr vol. 44 . Special Issue . 200411 3

Note from the Guest Editors

Thirty scholars were kind enough to review papers for this Issue. We were
truly impressed by the dedication and professionalism of so many busy people.
In particular, we risk the inevitability of offending those who we forget to men-
tion, but convey special appreciation for going a lot further than the proverbial
extra mile to Cyril Bouquet, Nicole Coviello, Andrew Delios, Gary Jones, Janet
Murray, Lilach Nachum, and Heather Wilson. The full list of reviewers is ap-
pended, with our appreciation for giving their valuable time and insights. Thanks
also to Rudolf Hastenteufel of the mir Editorial Office; and to Klaus Macharzina
and Joachim Wolf, editors of this wonderful journal, for the opportunity to work
on this project.
DAVID BROCK
JULIAN BIRKINSHAW

List of Reviewers for this Special Issue

Yair Aharoni Tel Aviv University

Tamar Almor College of Management
Brent Allred College of William & Mary
Henrik Bresman Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cyril Bouquet University of Western Ontario
Mark Casson University of Reading
Nicole Coviello University of Calgary and University of Auckland
Doren Chadee University of Auckland
Wade Danis Marquette University
Andrew Delios National University of Singapore
Anthony Ferner De Montfort University
Anne-Wil Harzing University of Melbourne
Susan Hill London Business School
Johny Johansson Georgetown University
Stewart Johnston University of Melbourne
Gary K. Jones American University
Stefan Jonsson Stockholm School of Economics
Mark Lehrer University of Rhode Island
Michael Mol Nijmegen University
Janet Murray Saint Louis University
Lilach Nachum University of Cambridge and Baruch College
Rajneesh Narula Copenhagen Business School
Elisabeth Rose University of Auckland
Tagi Sagafi-nejad Loyola College in Maryland
Jay Sankaran University of Auckland
Joanna Scott-Kennel Victoria University of Wellington
Sully Taylor Portland State University
David C. Thomas Simon Fraser University
Heather Wilson University of Auckland
Ivo Zander Stockholm School of Economics

4 mlr vol. 44 . Special Issue . 20041l

 mlr Special Issue 200411, pp. 5-14
•
mlr
Management
International Review
© Gabler Verlag 2004

David M. Brock/Julian Birkinshaw

Multinational Strategy and Structure:

A Review and Research Agenda 1
Abstract
• A review essay, including a background to the Special Issue. We sketch out
the major changes that we see underway in the strategies and structures of
MNEs. Some of these are developed in the papers that follow; others are based
on extant literature and empirical observation. The five papers in the special
issue are introduced in context of an integration-responsiveness framework,
and we delineate some of the contributions of each paper.

Key Results
• The major changes in strategy and structure in MNEs discussed are increasing
levels of global integration, innovation by design, new network structures, out-
sourcing of major value-chain activities, E-cornmerce, and the backlash against
globalization.
• A brief overview of the integration-responsiveness framework, the papers in
the Special Issue, and how each paper relates to the framework.

Authors
David Brock, Senior Lecturer, Department of Business Administration, Ben-Gurion University,
Beer-Sheva, Israel.
Julian Birkinshaw, Associate Professor, Strategic and International Management, London Business
School, UK.

mlr vol. 44 . Special Issue· 200411 5

David M. Brock/Julian Birkinshaw

From the PricewaterhouseCoopers building in Auckland to the Nationale Neder-

landen in Warsaw, Nissan in Amsterdam and Esso in Paris, to Tokyo's Marriott
and Vancouver's HSBC, impressive architectural structures around the globe re-
mind us of the dominance of multinationals over the contemporary organiza-
tional landscape. But the apparent stasis and permanence of corporate office
blocks belie the state of flux in both the strategies and structures of multinational
enterprises (MNEs) as well as the academic literature focused on understanding
and explaining their activities.
There are enormous changes underway in the make-up of large MNEs -
from the emergence of new organisation structures to the outsourcing of major
parts of the value chain to the development of new mindsets. However, the aca-
demic literature has struggled to do justice to the magnitude of the changes that
are underway. The prevailing view of the multinational corporation in the litera-
ture is either dated, with its basis in the structures identified by Stopford and
Wells thirty years ago, or it is driven by theoretical abstractions such as net-
works, isomorphic fields, or transaction costs.
This special issue of mir focuses on updating and rethinking our knowledge
of strategy and structure in MNEs. We began with the aim of promoting more
phenomenon-based research. What is actually happening in MNEs? And what
light can we as academics shed on these phenomena? We called for fresh data,
new perspectives, and hopefully some surprising conclusions. Thanks to the ef-
fort and ingenuity of the authors and reviewers of the 23 papers received in
response to the Ccll, we now have all three. And we have a far clearer under-
standing of several key contemporary issues in the management strategy and
structure.
The 23 papers submitted reflected a wide variety of topics, with surprisingly
few overlaps. Three papers dealt with some aspect of global sourcing. Three
proposed some form of theory development, but were not considered within the
scope of this Special Issue. The issues of HR management, technology, and inte-
gration processes each featured twice. Topics that appeared only once but we
had hoped to see more of included innovation, regional headquarter roles, coor-
dination mechanisms, ownership structures, and international joint ventures.
We have two objectives in this introductory essay. First, we would like to
sketch out the major changes that we see underway in the strategies and struc-
tures of MNEs. Some of these are developed in the papers that follow; others
are based on our own observations. But they are all high visible and, we would
argue, highly important trends that deserve considerably greater research atten-
tion than they currently receive. The second purpose of this essay is to introduce
the five papers in the special issue, and to delineate some of the commonalities
and differences between them.

6 mlr vol. 44 . Special Issue . 200411

 Multinational Strategy and Structure: A Review and Research Agenda

Major Changes in Strategy and Structure in MNEs

What are the major strategic challenges facing executives in large MNEs today?
Many of the top-of-mind concerns are specific to today's economic situation: sur-
viving the economic downturn, the threat of terrorism or war, and regulatory con-
cerns following the collapse of Enron and Worldcom. But over and above these
specific concerns, there are a number of broad issues that tend to recur - the
need to find new sources of growth, the challenge of generating profits in big
emerging economies like China and India, the demands for greater global coordi-
nation from major customers, and so on. It is this latter set of issues that we are
interested in here. Rarely today does one hear executives worrying about how to
enter a foreign market, or how to structure their international operations. That is
not to suggest these are unimportant issues. Rather, the implication is that these
issues have been given considerable attention over the last decade and are now
"under control". Attention, instead, turns to new challenges that the executives in
question have little experience in dealing with. And without trying to claim it is
comprehensive, here is our list of these new challenges and changes:

Increasing Levels of Global Integration

Integrative structures often in unexpected areas. On the supply-side, MNEs are

sourcing more products and services on a global basis, often from less developed
parts of the world. And on the demand side, MNEs are seeking out new ways of
coordinating their activities to deliver increased value to their global customers.
One trend is towards "global account managers" to coordinate activities worldwide
to important customers. A related trend is towards shifting the emphasis from sell-
ing products to providing "services and solutions" to big global customers.

Innovation by Design

Most large MNEs are not good at innovation. They are often good at managing
systematised innovation processes such as drug development, but they struggle
with out-of-the-box thinking and truly innovative ideas. Aware of this shortcom-
ing, many MNEs including Royal Dutch/Shell, Roche and Intel are experiment-
ing with new designs for innovation, such as corporate venturing units,
incubators, and idea-generation programs. Others, including 3M, HP and Sara
Lee, are focusing on creating a more innovative and/or entrepreneurial culture.
Research suggests that there are no silver bullets to the problem of innovation,
and that most structured efforts fail, but that is not preventing a great deal of
energy going into this issue.

mir vol. 44 . Special Issue . 200411 7

David M. Brock/Julian Birkinshaw

New Network Structures

There is a common feeling among many MNEs that matrix structures have cre-
ated complexity and inertia, and that the Transnational model, in all its varia-
tions, has been hard to implement effectively. As a result, many are now
experimenting with simpler structures - spinning off businesses and activities
that do not fit, and using more market-like coordination systems.

Outsourcing of Major Value-chain Activities

Large, global players are emerging as specialists in each and every step of the
value chain. The most well known examples are in the field of IT services
(EDS, Accenture, IBM Global Services) and contracting manufacturing (Flextro-
nics, Solectron, Celestica), but the same phenomenon can also be seen in R&D
services, logistics, catering and facilities management. And often these new spe-
cialists are located in lower-cost parts of the world.

E-commerce and the Internet

While e-commerce has not lived up to the hype of the late 1990s, its impact on
the MNE's strategy and structure is still substantial. E-commerce has speeded up
fulfilment, and it has facilitated many of the outsourcing trends identified above.
It has also facilitated more rapid international growth. Amazon.com, for exam-
ple, has a Canadian business without a single employee - it runs its software
out of the US, and all fulfilment and distribution activities are subcontracted to
Canada post. There are also internal coordination benefits from the Internet, in
terms of knowledge and information sharing.

The Backlash against Globalization

MNEs have attracted the brunt of the criticism from so called "anti-globaliza-
tion" protestors during WTO meetings in Seattle, Genoa and elsewhere. The
anti-globalisation movement is a diverse mix of groups without a coherent agen-
da, but it has forced MNEs to rethink their more contentious policies, and it has
encouraged them to better articulate the benefits they bring to less developed
countries. Corporate imperialism may be dead, but we are not yet sure what is
going to replace it.
While these points are concerned with new trends and un-charted research
phenomena, there is also a great deal of terrain that remains unchanged. In parti-
cular, many of the conceptual tools that were developed during the 1980s con-
tinue to serve us well. We would argue, for example, that we understand the

8 mir vol. 44 . Special Issue . 200411

 Multinational Strategy and Structure: A Review and Research Agenda

economic logic for the existence of MNEs, the processes through which they
move overseas, and the key trade-offs and tensions that MNE executives have to
manage on an ongoing basis. This is not to suggest that the field of international
business has reached a state of maturity. Rather, we would suggest that the po-
tential for generating additional insights from our established theoretical frames
is limited, so rather than invest energy in another study based on transaction cost
economics, we would encourage researchers to seek out new ways of looking at
the world. It is beyond the scope of this essay - and perhaps beyond our capa-
bilities as well - to provide much insight into the nature of these new theoretical
lenses, but if history is any guide the advances will come from the application
of some of the cutting-edge ideas in cognate disciplines such as economics,
sociology and economic geography.

Overview of Papers in the Special Issue

The five papers that follow in this special issue address a variety of themes. To
give them some coherence, we have reverted to one of the most enduring con-
ceptual frameworks in the field of international business, the so-called Integra-
tion-Responsiveness grid, first introduced to the field by C. K. Prahalad in 1976,
and then elaborated by Chris Bartlett in 1979.

Integration and Responsiveness

It is well established that MNEs face competing pressures for local responsive-
ness (LR) and for global integration (GI). Bartlett and Ghoshal (1988), for exam-
ple, point out that "retaining local flexibility while achieving global integration"
is a feature of transnational organizations (1988, p. 66). Rosenzweig and Singh
(1991), focusing on the subsidiary unit, make a related observation, namely:
"subsidiaries of MNEs face dual pressures: They are pulled to achieve isomorph-
ism with the local institutional environment, and they also face an imperative for
consistency within the organization" (1991, p. 340).
However, we can already note differing views of GI and LR in these sources:
Some see GI/LR as environmental contingencies, perhaps akin to industry struc-
tural forces (Yip 2003). This view is exemplified in the above quote from
Rosenzweig and Singh (1991). The fiercer the local competition, the more com-
plex the operating environment, and the more fragmented the global market-
place, the more important it will be for the business to have the autonomy to
respond locally. On the other hand, the more globalized the industry, the more

mlr vol. 44 . Special Issue· 2004/1 9

David M. Brock/Iulian Birkinshaw

the competitors and bases for competition in a country are similar to those in
other countries, the less the need for LR and the greater the rewards of global
integration (Westney 1993, Yip 2003). Alternately, GI and LR can be seen as
some organizational-level strategic or structural design parameters. The Bartlett
and Ghoshal (1988) quote above reflects this view.
This lack of consensus as to the basis realm of the integration-responsiveness
(IR) framework is the motivation for "A New Perspective on the Integration-Re-
sponsiveness Pressures Confronting Multinational Firms", by Sunil Venaik, Da-
vid Midgley and Timothy Devinney. Their review of the literature and empirical
analysis of the domain raise important concerns about the way in which IR ideas
have been operationalized. For example, more prior work concentrates on the
consequences of integration-responsiveness pressures rather than the pressures
themselves. And they find that some researchers have measured pressures
whereas others measure managerial responses to pressures, confounding external
pressures with firm heterogeneity. Their empirical findings indicate that IR pres-
sures have a greater number of dimensions than previously thought and that they
are better conceptualized as formative rather than reflective in nature. They con-
clude that investigators need to conceptualize and measure the environmental
pressures facing multinationals at a more fundamental level.

Responsiveness Pressures

Who can resist the arguments for responsiveness? Who would begrudge the man-
agement of multinational businesses around the world the flexibility to tailor
their product and service offerings, their incentive packages, their inventory con-
trol policies, their planning systems and their cash management protocols to the
local task environment? In all the dozens of interviews we've had with man-
agers, all the debates with students, and in a steady flow of scholarly journal
articles these themes of local adaptation, autonomy, and responsiveness prove
popular.
Hard, empirical evidence for these themes, however, is relatively scarce. Pat-
terson and Brock (2002) use word counts on a small sample of articles to indi-
cate that contemporary authors - particularly those in the 'Subsidiary
Development' research stream (e.g., BirkinshawlHood/lohnson 1998) - seem to
indicate a trend toward concepts related to autonomy rather than control. Further,
there continues to be research on subsidiary specific advantages and centres of
excellence (Moore 2001). And we are also reminded that even in this world of
global strategies, some local adaptation is needed (KanterlDretler 1998, Machar-
zina 2001).
The ultimate in responsiveness in an organizational structure would be a true
bottom-up flow of ideas, information, and - ultimately - managerial decision

10 mlr vol. 44 . Special Issue . 200411

 Multinational Strategy and Structure: A Review and Research Agenda

making. In Multinationals, Reverse Diffusion and National Business Systems,

Tony Edwards and Anthony Ferner discuss Reverse Diffusion (RD) - the phe-
nomenon whereby managerial practices are transferred from foreign subsidiaries
to the home-country operations. Pulling together the limited relevant findings
from previous research, and drawing on prior case study evidence, they provides
a set of structured arguments about the logic, detenninants and mechanisms of
RD - specifically concerning diffusion of HRM practices. Although these prac-
tices are clearly rare, their findings shed light on the sort of multinational in
which reverse diffusion is most likely to occur, its potential consequences, and
the processes through which it occurs.
Another classic factor that generally requires responsiveness on the part of
the MNE is national culture. In Global versus multidomestic: Culture's conse-
quences on innovation, Brent Allred and Scott Swan examine the relationship of
national culture to finn innovation. Hypotheses are developed and tested using
data from 536 companies across ten countries competing in four global and four
multidomestic industries. Using the Hofstede cultural framework they find that
individualism, low power distance, and low uncertainty avoidance are more posi-
tively related to innovation within multidomestic industries; while Confucian dy-
namism is more positively related to innovation within global industries. On the
other hand the relationship between masculinity/femininity and innovation does
not seem to vary across industry type.
However, while illustrating fascinating aspects of responsiveness, both the
above articles also reflect aspects of integration. For a multinational to avail it-
self of the benefits of reverse diffusion, integrative mechanisms are needed to
link subsidiaries with the rest of the finn; and specifically to identify and trans-
fer the relevant managerial practices. In fact Edwards and Ferner conclude that
one of the main requirements for successful RD is "an 'infrastructure' of me-
chanisms of diffusion". And Robins, Tallman and Fladmoe-Lindquist (2002) sug-
gest that while international cooperative ventures need to become autonomous,
aspects of strategic integration seem to be a key success factor. In the following
section we discuss these integration forces in some more detail.

Integration Pressures

More than simply being a portfolio of unconnected businesses around the world,
Multinationals generally try to create value by realizing synergies among their
component parts. Indeed, to compensate for the costs and complexities of doing
business across national borders the MNE needs a structure and strategy "that
integrates and manages for worldwide business leverage and competitive advan-
tage" (Yip 2003, pp. 5-6). Global integration refers to an exchange resources
within country units of an MNE, and is a key element of international competi-

mir vol. 44 . Special Issue· 2004/1 11

David M. Brock/Julian Birkinshaw

tion (MaurilPhatak 2001). Recent research on integrating mechanisms includes

studies of global account management (BirkinshawlfoulanlArnold 2001, Mont-
gomerylYip 2000), global purchasing (Mol/van TulderlBeije 2002), corporate
political activity (Blumentritt/Nigh 2002), perceived individual career benefits
(Newburry 2001), and human resource practices (Ghoshal/Gratton 2002). Mal-
night (2001) finds evidence of global knowledge sharing, global data sharing,
and global facilities sharing. Luo (2002) finds that integration is positively re-
lated to resource distinctiveness - an apparent effort to build protective layers
around proprietary assets in foreign markets.
A key factor in enabling MNEs to realize and enhance their value is their
ability to leverage firm-specific resources. Thus Contextual moderating effects
and the relationship of firm-specific resources, strategy, structure and peiform-
ance among Japanese multinational enterprises by Stephen Tallman, Michael
Geringer and David Olsen develops and tests a path analytic model of resource
value-strategy-structure-performance relationships for MNEs in which resource
and strategic variables are interdependent. The model is tested using mUlti-year
data from a sample of large Japanese industrial MNEs in order to examine the
effects of keiretsu membership on hypothesized relationships. Their results sug-
gest that resource value, strategy, and structure have significant interdependen-
cies and simultaneously impact performance. Interestingly - and also within the
scope of integrating mechanisms - Keiretsu membership has significant moder-
ating effects under some circumstances.
Integrating mechanisms can also be used for defensive purposes - for exam-
ple to protect proprietary technology against misappropriation (Luo 2002). Mark
Cannice, Roger Chen and John Daniels's paper on Managing International Tech-
nology Transfer Risk: Alternatives and Complements to Ownership Structure
uses transaction cost theory to predict and assess firms' methods of managing
international technology transfer risks. This exploratory study builds propositions
for protecting technology when exploiting it through foreign production. The
method includes a comparative case analysis of nine US high-tech manufacturers
in four Asian countries. They propose that companies rely not only on ownership
structure (e.g. entry mode selection) to protect against technology misappropria-
tion, but also on making transferred technologies more tacit and headquarters-
dependent. Finally, viewing technology transfer from the transferee's perspective,
they develop a theoretical framework on managing international technology
transfer risks. They find that firms not only rely on their transferred technolo-
gies' tacitness to increase the difficulty of misappropriation, but also that inter-
nationally transferred technologies' are dependent on headquarters-controlled
technology to decrease the value of those technologies to potential misappropria-
tors, thus decreasing the motivation to misappropriate. They also conclude that
firms use more technology protection levers for core technologies than for pe-
ripheral technologies.

12 mlr vol. 44 . Special Issue . 2004/1

 Multinational Strategy and Structure: A Review and Research Agenda

Concluding Comments

While the five papers in this special issue offer some important insights into the
structural and strategic challenges facing MNEs, there is considerable scope for
further research in any and all of the areas described earlier. In fact, we would
go further. Despite (or perhaps because of) the burgeoning volume of academic
literature, there are relatively few studies that actually put the spotlight on the
leading-edge trends and phenomena in the world of business. We would like to
see more of this sort of research - studies that immerse themselves in the com-
plex realities of decision making in large MNEs, or that seek out the new and
unexplored frontiers of international business practice. To be sure, this is difficult
research to conduct, but it is exhilarating work and the payoffs are substantial.

Acknowledgement

I Thanks to Shlomit Baruch, Cyril Bouquet, and Robert-Jan Bulter.

References

Bartlett, C. A.lGhoshal, S., Organizing for Worldwide Effectiveness: The Transnational Solution,
California Management Review, 31, I, 1988, pp. 54-74.
Birkinshaw, J.fHood, N.lJohnson, S., Building Firm-specific Advantages in Multinational Corpora-
tions: The Role of The Subsidiary Initiative, Strategic Management Journal, 19, 3, 1998,
pp. 221-241.
Birkinshaw, J. M.rroulan, O.lAmold, D., Global Account Management in Multinational Corporations:
Theory and Evidence, Journal of International Business Studies, 32, 2,200 I, pp. 321-348.
Blumentritt, T. P.I Nigh, D., The Integration of Subsidiary Political Activities in Multinational Cor-
porations, Journal of International Business Studies, 31, I, 2002, pp. 57-77.
Ghoshal, S.lGratton, L., Integrating the Enterprise, Sloan Management Review, 44, 1, 2002,
pp.31-38.
Harzing, A., Managing the Multinationals: An International Study of M, Northampton, MA: E. El-
gar 1999.
Harzing, A., An Empirical Analysis and Extension of the Bartlett and Ghoshal Typology of Multi-
national Companies, Journal of International Business Studies, 31, I, 2000, pp. 10 1-120.
Kanter, R. M.fDretler, T., "Global Strategy" and Its Impact on Local Operations: Lessons from
Gillette Singapore, Academy of Management Executive, 12,4, 1998, pp. 60-68.
Luo, Y., Organizational Dynamics and Global Integration: A Perspective from Subsidiary Man-
agers, Journal of International Management, 8, 2002, pp. 189-215.
Macharzina, K., The End of Pure Global Strategies?, Management International Review, 41, 2001,
pp. 105-108.

mlr vol. 44 . Special Issue . 200411 13

David M. Brock/Iulian Birkinshaw

Malnight, T. W., Emergent Structural Patterns within Multinational Corporations: Toward Process-
based Structures, Academy of Management Journal, 44, 6, 2001, pp. 1187-1210.
Mauri, A. I.lPhatak, A. V., Global Integration as Inter-area Product Flows: The Internalization of
Ownership and Location Factors Influencing Product Flows Across MNC Units, Management
International Review, 41, 2001, pp. 233-249.
Montgomery, D. B.Nip, G. S., The Challenge of Global Customer Management, Marketing
Management, 9, 4, 2000, pp. 22-29.
Mol, M.!van Tulder, R. I. M.lBeije, P. R., Global Outsourcing: Antecedents and Performance Con-
sequences, Working Paper, University of Rotterdam 2002.
Moore, K. 1., A Strategy for Subsidiaries: Centres of Excellence to Build Subsidiary Specific Ad-
vantages, Management International Review, 41, 2001, pp. 275-290.
Newburry, W., MNC Interdependence and Local Embeddedness Influences on Perceptions of
Career Benefits From Global Integration, Journal of International Business Studies, 32, 3, 2001,
pp.497-507.
Patterson, S. L.lBrock, D. M., The Development of Subsidiary Management Research: Review and
Theoretical Analysis, International Business Review, 11,2,2002, pp. 139-163.
Robins, I. A.!Tallman, S./Fladmoe-Lindquist, K., Autonomy and Dependence of International Co-
operative Ventures: An Exploration of the Strategic Performance of U.S. Ventures in Mexico,
Strategic Management Journal, 23, 2002, pp. 881-901.
Rosenzweig P.!Singh, 1., Organizational Environments and the Multinational Enterprise, Academy
of Management Review, 16,2, 1991, pp. 340-361.
Westney, D. E., Institutionalization Theory and the Multinational Corporation, in Ghoshal S., West-
ney D. E. (eds.), Organization Theory and the Multinational Corporation, New York: St Mar-
tin's Press 1993.
Yip, G. S., Total Global Strategy II, Upper Saddle River, NI: Prentice Hall 2003.

14 mlr vol. 44 . Special Issue . 2004/1

mlr Special Issue 200411, pp. 15-48
•
mlr
Management
International Review
© Gabler Verlag 2004

Sunil VenaikJDavid F. MidgleylTimothy M. Devinney

A New Perspective on the Integration-

Responsiveness Pressures Confronting
Multinational Firms 1
Abstract
• The integration-responsiveness (IR) framework has been used extensively in
the literature and has proven useful in describing the issues facing managers
in multinational organisations. In a review of the literature and empirical ana-
lysis of the domain of JR we raise important concerns about the way in which
the ideas of Prahalad and Doz have been operationalised.

Key Results
• Our literature review indicates little consensus as to the definition of the do-
main of JR, and that some investigators measure pressures whereas others
measure managerial responses to pressures, confounding external pressures
with firm heterogeneity. Our empirical findings indicate that IR pressures have
a greater number of dimensions than previously thought and that they are bet-
ter conceptualised as formative rather than reflective in nature. We conclude
that investigators need to conceptualise and measure the environmental pres-
sures facing multinationals at a more fundamental level.

Authors
Sunil Venaik, Assistant Professor, Indan Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India and
Senior Lecturer, Enterprise & Intenational Business, University of Queensland Business School,
University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
David F. Midgley, Professor of Marketing, INSEAD, Fontainebleau, Cedex, France.
Timothy M. Devinney, Professor and Director, Centre for Corporate Change, Australian Graduate
School of Management, Sydney, NSW, Australia.

mir vol. 44 . Special Issue . 200411 15

Sunil VenaikIDavid F. MidgleylTimothy M. Devinney

Introduction

"Pressure: from the Latin pres sura - the action of pressing" (Webster's Dictionary).

The Integration-Responsiveness framework of Prahalad and Doz (1987) has

been used extensively in the international business literature to typify the diverse
and often-conflicting environmental pressures confronting firms as they expand
worldwide (BartlettiGhoshal 1989, BirkinshawlMorrisonlHulland 1995, Harzing
2000, JohanssonfYip 1994, Kobrin 1994, Martinez/Jarillo 1991, MurthalLenway/
Bagozzi 1998, RothlMorrison 1990, Taggart 1998). Stated simply, firms come
under pressure to take an integrated approach to their global activities - that is,
to coordinate their business units and strategies to attain maximum efficiency
and competitive advantage. These pressures for Global Integration might lead to
responses such as producing parts in a single location for global use at efficient
scale, or mandating global consistency in brand positioning. Concurrently, firms
face a countervailing set of pressures to adapt their activities to the unique cir-
cumstances of the countries in which they operate. These pressures for Local
Responsiveness may prompt responses such as producing parts locally to obtain
tax incentives or adapting brand positioning to local market circumstances.
These combined pressures form the Integration-Responsiveness (hereafter, IR)
framework.
Although the IR framework has been successfully applied for over a decade,
many theoretical and empirical studies have focused on the consequences of
these pressures rather than the pressures themselves. Where scholars have sought
to evaluate IR pressures, these have often been inferred from the firm's choice
of strategy and structure; in other words, from the firm response to these pres-
sures. Hence, far less attention has been paid to the underlying nature of the IR
pressures or to measuring them directly; leaving their scope, nature and form
less than fully articulated in the literature.
Does this matter? We believe so for both conceptual and methodological rea-
sons. First, the strategy literature suggests that different firms may react differ-
ently to the same pressures (BartlettiGhoshal 1989). This heterogeneity
confounds the relationship between firm response and underlying pressures -
making it difficult to test the IR framework from observations of response alone.
It is important to measure the IR pressures as separate constructs and to show
how they and other factors impact on managerial choices of strategy and struc-
ture. Second, such measures of IR pressures as have been employed in the litera-
ture are potentially problematic because of a failure in all cases to distinguish
between firm responses and environmental pressures. Furthermore, many ap-
proaches are relatively undeveloped from a methodological perspective, tapping
different domains of pressures and assuming simple, one-dimensional reflective

16 mir vol. 44 . Special Issue . 200411

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