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In Consciousness We Trust
 In Consciousness We Trust
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Subjective Experience

Hakwan Lau
Team Leader, Laboratory for Consciousness, RIKEN Center for Brain
Science, Japan
 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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© Hakwan Lau 2022
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2022
Impression: 1
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 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198856771.001.0001
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To the truth-loving people of Hong Kong
Acknowledgments

First, I have to thank those who have taught me the most about the
subject. They are my current and former students and mentees,
including Brian Mansicalco, Dobromir Rahnev, Ai Koizumi, Liyan
McCurdy, Yoshiaki Ko, Jorge Morale, Guillermo Solovey, Megan
Peters, Vincent Taschereau-Dumouchel, Brian Odegaard, Aurelio
Cortese, JD Knotts, Kiyo Miyoshi, Taylor Webb, Yujia Peng, Cody
Cushing, Mouslim Cherkaoui, Raihyung Lee, Cathie So, Ben
Rosenberg, and Seong Hah Cho. You’ll read about some of their
excellent work throughout the book.
Like Angela Clague, Matthias Michel was kind enough to read the
drafts of all the chapters in this book, well before they were
readable. As usual, his comments have improved the content
substantially.
Of course, I also have teachers in a more formal sense. It was
Chad Hansen at the University of Hong Kong, my alma mater, who
first got me interested in philosophy and academia. Joe Lau at the
same institution taught me how to read and write properly and
planted the important seed of doubt that abstruse writing is typically
anything but profound. At Oxford, Dick Passingham miraculously
created a scientist out of an unruly young man.
From there, the line between mentors and friends gets blurry:
Chris Frith, Joe LeDoux, Patrick Haggard, David Rosenthal, and
Mitsuo Kawato taught me how to be less unwise as an academic
(and as a person in general). At UCLA, Michelle Craske kindly
supported my foray into clinical studies. Michele Basso and Alicia
Izquierdo likewise allowed me to learn about animal models, as a
late beginner.
Outside of my own affiliated institutions, Steve Fleming and
Richard Brown are both good friends as well as collaborators. Our
playing music very poorly together provided some probably
pathological yet beneficial form of moral support. If nothing else,
they convinced me that science, not music, is what I should focus
on. Floris de Lange and Tony Ro helped me out when I needed
friends to lean on in order to continue doing experiments in
neuroscience. Tom Barry and Christian Chan taught me much about
clinical psychology, as well as about my own home city.
Dean Mobbs and Sara Bengtsson are likewise both good friends,
as well as collaborators, from the days when we all worked together
in the same building in London where my theoretical ideas on
consciousness first took shape. We all miss Tom Schofield very
much.
There are really too many thanks to give, but I want to highlight a
few people with whom I often disagree: Ned Block, Stanislas
Dehaene, and Victor Lamme. It’s been an utter privilege to learn
directly from them. That these eminent colleagues never took
intellectual arguments personally and were always willing to engage
in a friendly way is what makes working in this field so special. I’m
lucky enough to have also had similarly pleasant exchanges recently
with Rafi Malach, Marius Usher, and Christof Koch. Although Christof
and I hardly ever agree on anything, he promoted my career all the
same when I started out.
The actual writing of this book started when I was on leave from
UCLA, at the University of Hong Kong. While I finished the first draft
back in Los Angeles, some final touches were done at the Riken
Institute near Tokyo, where I currently am. I am grateful for the
generous support from these three great institutions. The UCLA
Library in particular has made possible for this book to be open
access.
Besides some of the names already mentioned above, many other
people have kindly read and commented on an earlier draft,
including: Bryce Heubner, Joey Zhou, Jason Samaha, Nico Silins,
Joshua Shepherd, Tony Cheng, Adrien Doerig, David Soto, Omri
Raccach, Paul Dux, Grace Lindsay, and Byron Sebastian. I have also
benefited from discussing drafts of this book in an undergraduate
class and a graduate seminar at UCLA during the year 2021.
Matthew Hin Ming Leung and Mouslim Cherkaoui both helped me
with editing the final proofs.
My parents won’t be reading these words, unless they are
translated into Chinese. Unfortunately, I turned out to be far more
irreverent than they would have liked me to be. But my skepticism
toward ‘authoritative’ opinions came from their strong characters.
This book was very much written based on that foundation.
Finally, I have to thank Kayuet Liu. We have somehow overlapped
at all of the various institutions mentioned above. She is my
sociology and statistics tutor, and occasional coauthor. It may be
inappropriate to describe one’s colleague this way, but to my mind
she is also the loveliest person in the world. I hope I can get away
with this because she also happens to be my spouse.

Introduction: Reality as One Sees It

I explain why we will focus on cognitive neuroscience rather than
physics-centric theories.
Chapter 1: Game Plan and Definitions
Subjective experience is our focus here, though it may relate to
other notions of consciousness such as wakefulness or voluntary
control too. We will arbitrate between global and local theories.
Chapter 2: The Unfinished NCC Project
If we control for the key experimental confounds, the evidence is in
favor of the prefrontal cortex’s role in consciousness - although it
may not be for the purpose of global broadcast.
Chapter 3: Hitting the Right Note
Lesions and stimulation studies are often conceptually misinterpreted
or factually misrepresented. There is good evidence for the causal
involvement of the prefrontal cortex in consciousness.
Chapter 4: Untouched Raw Feels?
When we don’t pay attention we don’t perceive much details. But
our experience may be subjectively ‘inflated’ beyond what we
actually represent in the sensory cortices; troubles for local theorists.
Chapter 5: What Good Is Consciousness?
To answer the question we need new experimental methods, beyond
subliminal priming. Current evidence suggests that consciousness
may not be as useful as global theories suggest.
Chapter 6: A Centrist Manifesto
Let’s take stock of the findings reviewed so far. Neither global nor
local theories seem right.
What are the constraints for a plausible theory? What can we learn
from current AI research?
Chapter 7: Are We Alone?
We introduce the perceptual reality monitoring theory (PRM),
according to which some animals may not be conscious. And yet,
perhaps even a robot or computer program could be (to be revisited
in Chapter 9).
Chapter 8: Making Ourselves Useful
In the social and clinical sciences, ‘consciousness’ often refers to our
rational grasp of reality.
How is this related to the kind of consciousness we have discussed
so far?
Chapter 9: What of the Hard Problem?
Subjective experiences are characterized by ‘what it is like’ to have
them. Cognitive neuroscience can address this quality too.
Metaphysical theories don’t fare better, and may just hinder scientific
progress.
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Contents

Introduction: Reality as One Sees It

1. Game Plan and Definitions
2. The Unfinished NCC Project
3. Hitting the Right Note
4. Untouched Raw Feels?
5. What Good Is Consciousness?
6. A Centrist Manifesto
7. Are We Alone?
8. Making Ourselves Useful
9. What of the Hard Problem?

Index
Introduction: Reality as One Sees It

I.1 Echo Chambers

Countless eminent scholars have written on the topic of
consciousness. Do we really need yet another book about it?
I am writing one because I believe that the science of
consciousness is at a crossroads. On the one hand, public interest on
the topic remains as high as ever. Our visibility in the media ensures
that private donors recognize our challenges. At times they support
us generously. Students are excited about the topic. Many are eager
to join the field. In many ways, things seem to be going well.
On the other hand, it is unclear where we really stand
scientifically. Outside of the field, many of our colleagues don’t think
much of what we do at all. Some may concede that this is just a
matter of the nature of the scientific challenge we face. However,
many also believe that the sheer lack of quality and rigor of the work
is to blame. Unfortunately, I have to confess, sometimes I think they
have a point.
Perhaps the discrepancy between the two different outlooks can
be explained by two facts. The first is that scientists often vote with
their feet. If they see that some field is hopeless, they may just
ignore it, and focus on what they see as more tractable instead. To
hear from our critics, we may need to seek them out.
I often like to hear what my ‘opponents’ have to say. Maybe it is in
part my temperament. But I also realize—intellectual benefits aside
—there are strategic reasons for engaging in this kind of
conversation. The success of a scientific discipline depends not just
on sheer empirical and theoretical progress. Often, acceptance by
our academic neighbors matters too.
 This brings me to the second reason why the negative outlook is
often downplayed. Not only do our critics tend to keep their strong
opinions to themselves, but those who are within the discipline are
also prone to ignoring these negative comments. We often choose to
live inside our own echo chambers. In part because, frankly, it
doesn’t seem to be good for business to emphasize too much our
own shortcomings or to promote them. Criticisms are also generally
unpleasant to hear. But even when we aren’t so shortsighted and
defensive, there is this romantic feeling of going against the grain,
that is pretty much shared within the community of consciousness
researchers: Historically, we know that things have been hard. But
we shall ignore our critics, and soldier on. Against all the odds, we
will eventually get there and prove them wrong . . .

I.2 Romantic Ambitions

I am no stranger to this romantic feeling. After all, I have spent half
of my life in this somewhat controversial field.
In college, I read Dave Chalmers’ Conscious Mind (1996)). Like
the grunge and alternative rock music that was popular around the
time of its publication, the book shook my world. Besides the
refreshingly clean arguments, I distinctly remember how cool it was,
that a rising star of a young scholar expressed so beautifully his
heartfelt frustration at the many attempts to reduce our subjective
experiences down to some physical processes. Those attempts can
sometimes lead to “elegant theories,” I recall Chalmers wrote, but
the problem does not go away.
Don’t get me wrong—I was, and still am a cognitivist, in the sense
that, I believe the best way to understand the brain is to think of it
as a biologically instantiated computer. Concepts from electrical
engineering and computer science have proven to be great
analogies, if not straightforward theoretical constructs, for
understanding how the brain functions. That’s our bread and butter.
But there is one problem sticking out like a sore thumb. Machines
just don’t seem to feel anything, however sophisticated they are at
processing signals. So conscious perception cannot just be a matter
of processing signals because there are these unexplained raw feels.
There is something it is like seeing the color red. It’s more than just
picking up some wavelength values of incoming lights. Explaining
how these subjective experiences come about is what Chalmers
called the Hard Problem, and it does sound like one indeed.
This was, to my impressionable young mind then, on par with
Gödel’s application of devilishly clever logical analysis to show that
mathematics can never be complete (Smullyan 1998). By taking the
hard problem of consciousness seriously, we are recognizing that
cognitive neuroscience may too be incomplete.
Somehow this did not prevent me from going to graduate school
to study more cognitive neuroscience. There, many of my fellow
students and professors alike would snicker at the silliness of my
lofty philosophical obsessions. We are cognitive neuroscientists. Why
worry about problems that we can’t solve anyway? If a problem is
decidedly so ‘hard,’ why not find something more rewarding and
tractable to do? Being a good scientist is to be realistic about what
we can or cannot do.
But, I thought, the first step toward solving a problem is to
recognize that there is one. My fellow students and professors were
probably too conventional and conservative. I shall ignore them, and
soldier on. I was particularly encouraged when I learned that the
Nobel laureate Francis Crick suggested we put the sign
“Consciousness NOW” in our labs and offices. If such great minds as
Crick thought that the time was ripe for attack (1994), we had to be
onto something.
Who knows? Perhaps decades later, we would find that we have
done all we can within the limits of cognitive neuroscience, and lo
and behold, indeed, we cannot solve the hard problem. We may
need something more. Something like a revolution. In that sense,
we are working on the edges where things may eventually break
down in unpredictable ways. Indeed, they say that we may even
have to revise the very foundation of physics to accommodate the
occurrence of subjective experiences (Chalmers 1996). There just
seems to be no room for such subjective phenomena within the
ordinary language of objective science.
Like the opening power chords of Kurt Cobain’s song Smells Like
Teen Spirit, these possibilities seemed so intoxicatingly exciting to
my juvenile self.
But later I found out that I was wrong. Not because young people
shouldn’t dream big. But because I was fundamentally misguided
about some historical facts.

I.3 A Convoluted History

Like many currently active researchers in the field, I used to think
that the scientific studies of consciousness were somehow “revived”
in the 1990s. Or perhaps it really all started around then, with only
feeble activity here and there before that was very much suppressed
in the heydays of behaviorism. That narrative was so prevalent that,
even when I was a graduate student at Oxford, where Larry
Weiskrantz was still active in research, I just thought he must be an
anomaly.
Weiskrantz coined the term blindsight, which refers to the
phenomenon that people with specific brain damage can show
behavioral signs of successful visual information processing, such as
being able to guess the identity of a visual stimulus, all without
having conscious visual experience. Much of the work demonstrating
the phenomenon was done in the 1970s and 1980s (Weiskrantz
1986).
And then, of course, in neuroscience textbooks, we all know about
the amnesic patient HM, studied by Brenda Milner and others.
Patient HM can form new nonconscious memories in the form of
motor learning. What seemed to be most problematic was that he
was unable to form new conscious memories of events as they
occurred to him (what is also called episodic memory). Most of these
details were documented as early as in the 1950s (Scoville and
Milner 1957). So perhaps, another anomaly?
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Results 1: Ethical considerations and implications

Learning Objective 1: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 4: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 6: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Quiz 2: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 12: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 12: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
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Example 17: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
References 3: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Example 20: Historical development and evolution
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 21: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 25: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 26: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 28: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 30: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Unit 4: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Practice Problem 30: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 32: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 35: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 37: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 38: Key terms and definitions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 39: Literature review and discussion
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Test 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
Practice Problem 40: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 41: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 45: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 48: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 49: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Background 6: Fundamental concepts and principles
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 51: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 54: Case studies and real-world applications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 57: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 58: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 59: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 59: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Chapter 7: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 64: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 66: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Section 8: Case studies and real-world applications
Example 70: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 71: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 72: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 79: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 80: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Test 9: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 82: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 85: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 87: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 88: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 89: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Conclusion 10: Experimental procedures and results
Example 90: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 92: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 92: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 94: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 97: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 98: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 98: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 99: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Quiz 11: Ethical considerations and implications
Example 100: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 109: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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