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 Cambridge Studies in French

FRENCH RENAISSANCE TRAGEDY

 Cambridge Studies in French
General editor: MALCOLM BOWIE
Recent titles in this series include:

DALIA JUDOVITZ
Subjectivity and Representation in Descartes: The Origins of Modernity

RICHARD D. E. BURTON
Baudelaire in 1859: A Study in the Sources of Poetic Creativity
MICHAEL MORIARTY
Taste and Ideology in Seventeenth-Century France
JOHN FORRESTER
The Seductions of Psychoanalysis: Freud, Lacan and Derrida
JEROME SCHWARTZ
Irony and Ideology in Rabelais: Structures of Subversion
DAVID BAGULEY
Naturalist Fiction: The Entropic Vision
LESLIE HILL
Beckett's Fiction: In Different Words
F. W. LEAKEY
Baudelaire: Collected Essays, 1953-1988

SARAH KAY

Subjectivity in Troubadour Poetry

For a full list of books in the series, see the last pages in this volume.
Tragic stage-design {scena tragica) from Sebastiano Serlio's De architectura libri quinque (Venice, 1569),
reproduced by permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library
 FRENCH RENAISSANCE
TRAGEDY
THE DRAMATIC WORD

GILLIAN JONDORF
Fellow of Girton College
and Lecturer in French in the University of Cambridge

The right of the

University of Cambridge
to print and sell
all manner of books
was granted by
Henry VIII in 1534.
The University has printed
and published continuously
since 1584.

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

CAMBRIDGE
NEW YORK PORT CHESTER MELBOURNE SYDNEY
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521360142

© Cambridge University Press 1990

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 1990

This digitally printed first paperback version 2006

A catalogue recordfor this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Jondorf, Gillian.
French Renaissance tragedy: the dramatic word / Gillian Jondorf.
p. cm. - (Cambridge studies in French)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0 521 36014 5
1. French drama — 16th century — History and criticism. 2. French
drama (Tragedy) - History and criticism. I. Title. II. Series.
PQ523J59 1990
842'.05120903-dc20 89-78350 CIP

ISBN-13 978-0-521-36014-2 hardback

ISBN-10 0-521-36014-5 hardback

ISBN-13 978-0-521 -02558-4 paperback

ISBN-10 0-521-02558-3 paperback
In memoriam M.R.M. & O.M.
 CONTENTS

A cknowledgements page xi
Note on references and spelling xii

Introduction 1
1 Allusiveness 9
2 Exposition 29
3 The rhetor 45
4 The Chorus 65
5 Characterisation 87
6 Shape 111
7 Pleasures 131

Appendix: The tragedians 155

Notes 161
List of works cited and consulted 163
Index 169

IX
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the University of Cambridge and to the Council

of Girton College for the period of leave during which a large part
of this book was written, and for grants which enabled me to spend
that leave in Paris. I have enjoyed useful discussions with Dorothy
Coleman, Frangoise Charpentier, and Richard Griffiths, and more
general encouragement and help from Elizabeth Wright, Tom Loe,
W.R. Jondorf, and Alice Jondorf; I am grateful to them all.
Alison Fairlie read the book in draft and made many valuable
suggestions: the latest of innumerable kindnesses I have received
from her over the years, since she admitted me to Girton as an
undergraduate. Susan Moore copy-edited the text with a searching
eye and great patience, both of which I much appreciated. My last
debt of gratitude is to two friends to whom I can no longer express
my thanks, and to whose memory the book is dedicated: Ruth
Morgan encouraged me to begin it; Odette de Mourgues (who, with
Alison Fairlie, introduced me to French Renaissance tragedy)
read several chapters in draft, and commented on them with her
characteristic blend of courtesy and penetration.

XI
 NOTE ON REFERENCES AND
SPELLING

To keep notes to a minimum, sources are indicated in parentheses

in the text, by author, date, and, where necessary, page-number.
For quotations from sixteenth-century tragedies, act and line-
number are given.
I have followed the spelling used in the texts cited for the names
of characters in plays, but have used the standard English forms
for the names of the historical or legendary figures on whom those
characters are based.

XII
 INTRODUCTION

The subject of this book is sixteenth-century French tragedy, which

is variously referred to as 'humanist tragedy', 'Pleiade tragedy',
'learned tragedy', 'early regular tragedy', 'rhetorical tragedy', or
'pre-classical tragedy'.1 Anyone interested in this tragedy owes a
great debt to early explorers of the field such as Gustave Lanson,
Eugene Rigal, and numerous German scholars (including Karl
Bohm, Fritz Holl, Paul Kahnt, and Otto Reuter), as well as to the
notable contributions of Raymond Lebegue, to more recent works
by Richard Griffiths, Donald Stone Jr, John Street, Fran^oise
Charpentier, and to the editors of the various modern editions
which have prompted me to write this book.
Those who work on humanist tragedy have long pleaded for
it to be judged by appropriate criteria, preferably its own; but it
has always tended to be seen (often by the very people who have
made the plea) in relation to the classical tragedy of the seven-
teenth century. One manifestation of this is to see in these texts
(particularly in the plays of Robert Gamier) a quarry from which
Corneille and Racine extracted some beaux vers, and with their
superior skill turned them into proper seventeenth-century poetry.
A. Maynor Hardee, in the introduction of his edition of Mont-
chrestien's La Reine d'Escosse (1975a), praises Montchrestien for
poetic qualities which 'annoncent parfois l'art de Racine', or for
his 'heureux emploi de la stichomythie... [qui] oriente la tragedie
sur la voie ou s'affirmera plus tard la glorieuse maitrise de
Corneille' (16). Reading Jan Antoine de Baif's speech for the Fury,
Megere, composed as an addition to Mellin de Saint Gelais's
Sophonisba (Baif, 1965, 204), I noticed an 'anticipation' of
Oreste's hissing snakes at the end of Racine's Andromaque: 'Sus
serpens sur ce chef, / Sus sifflez sautelans joyeux de ce mechef.
Probably every modern reader of Gamier, Jodelle, or Montchres-
tien has made similar discoveries. How we think of them, how they
1
 French Renaissance tragedy

affect our attitude either to the sixteenth century or to the

seventeenth century, is another matter. Thierry Maulnier was so
enthusiastic about Gamier that he was almost inclined to regard
Racine as a plagiarist for purloining some of Garnier's best lines
(Maulnier, 1939, 86).
An even commoner way in which readers bring the earlier and
later tragedy into a relationship with one another is by thinking
in terms of evolution. Sixteenth-century tragedy is seen as the
evolutionary ancestor of seventeenth-century classical tragedy;
a typical example of this approach can be seen in Micheline
Sakharoff's Le Heros, sa liberte et son efficacite de Gamier a
Rotrou (1967); this contains many statements like the following:
'le theatre du XVIe siecle represente une etape dans l'elaboration
du genre tel qu'il apparaitra au siecle suivant' (29). The notion of
evolution is one which is very hard to exclude. We are all post-
Darwinians, and the Darwinian model is now firmly fixed in our
mental landscape. In her excellent book on humanist tragedy (Pour
une lecture de la tragedie humaniste, 1979), Frangoise Charpentier
says: 'c'est une perspective fausse que d'evaluer les oeuvres en
fonction de 1'evolution qu'allait connaitre leur genre' (6); but if
she does not want to use this evolutionary model as a criterion for
evaluation, it is clear that even Charpentier (a very sympathetic
and perceptive reader of humanist tragedy) still finds the evolu-
tionary idea useful for description: 'Nous sommes ici a un moment
decisif de la doctrine tragique... il est clair que Montchrestien, un
peu trop oublie, occupe une position charniere entre la maniere
de Gamier, et la tragedie exemplaire et heroique que Corneille a
portee a sa perfection' (51). The drawback is that the evolutionary
model is evaluative, since by the Darwinian hypothesis it is im-
possible to evolve for the worse. The theory of descent from an
ancestor implies ascent from a lowly origin. In the case of French
tragedy, this ascent is deemed to falter somewhat in the first
decades of the seventeenth century, and then to find its direction
again, to culminate in what we grandly call French classical
tragedy, when what we probably mean is fewer than half of
Corneille's plays, and eight of Racine's (excluding La Thebai'de,
Alexandre le Grand, and Esther).
Although I think that the discovery of imitated lines has more
interest for the study of Corneille and Racine than for that of
 Introduction

Gamier, Jodelle, or Montchrestien, and although I distrust some

of the implications of the evolutionary model, I also think that it
is neither possible nor necessary to try to pretend, when reading
humanist tragedy, that we have not read Corneille or Racine. As
soon as we read the second book in our lives, we are no longer in
a void; we cannot evacuate our minds before reading something
new to us, and our reading would be impoverished if we could.
Accordingly, in this book I have frequently drawn comparisons
between humanist and later tragedy, but not, I hope, to the disad-
vantage of either. Any reader of humanist tragedy is bound to have
some notions as to what tragedy is, or ought to be. For English-
speaking readers of French, these notions are probably based either
on Shakespeare or on Corneille and Racine. This is why I have,
at several points in this book, traced a reversed chronological path,
to show that features of humanist tragedy which might seem
difficult or rebarbative are also present (even if in different pro-
portions or different forms) in more familiar works, where they
do not impede the reader's enjoyment.
When critics called for humanist tragedy to be considered on
its own terms, one proposal as to what these terms should be was
put forward by those to whom I have sometimes referred in this
book, for brevity, as the rhetoric-critics. These critics (of whom
the most influential has been Richard Griffiths with his book on
Montchrestien, 1970) broke new ground in the study of humanist
tragedy. Briefly, they emphasised the central importance of
rhetoric in the schooling common to the tragic authors of the
sixteenth century, and suggested that rhetorical display was an end
in itself in humanist tragedy (see, for example, R.M. Griffiths,
1970, 37; T.L. Zamparelli, 1978,10; C.N. Smith in Montchrestien,
1972, 8).
I am sure that the rhetoric-critics are right in saying that an
understanding of the importance of rhetoric is essential for an
understanding of humanist tragedy. I would reproach them not
with overestimating the place of rhetoric in humanist tragedy,
but rather with adopting too narrow a view of it.
Rhetoric is not only I'art de bien dire, it is also I'art depersuader,
not only fine writing but purposeful writing. It has always had
this double identity, and cannot therefore be a matter of a poet
'bombinans in vacuo', or of a kind of writing where content,
 French Renaissance tragedy

reference, and values are irrelevant. The concerns of rhetoric

include the didactic (in the broadest sense) as well as the impressive.
Rhetoric becomes a red herring when interpreted too narrowly, and
when it is one of the reasons adduced for a supposedly almost
unbridgeable gap between humanist tragedy and the modern
reader. It should also be remembered that (as the work of Peter
France, A. Kibedi Varga, Marc Fumaroli, and others has amply
shown), rhetoric does not fade out at the end of the sixteenth
century. When Kibedi Varga (1970) refers to 'siecles classiques',
he means the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and even the
beginning of the eighteenth. To think of sixteenth-century tragedy
as rhetorical, and of seventeenth-century tragedy as having freed
itself from the bonds of rhetoric (with perhaps a few regrettable
vestiges in Corneille), is an absurd distortion. It is partly to em-
phasise this that I have used the 'reversed chronology' mentioned
above.
Rhetoric does not represent the only perspective adopted by
students of humanist theatre. Another approach, emphasising the
didactic rather than the formal element in humanist tragedy, has
tended to focus particularly on plays with biblical subjects, and
plays of political propaganda. There have also been occasional
attempts to work out a philosophical stance from the sententious
content of plays (for example by Kurt Willner, 1932). Donald Stone
Jr's book, French Humanist Tragedy. A Reassessment (1974), is
the best exposition of didacticism in humanist tragedy, which he
links, in this respect, with earlier French theatre and with other
sixteenth-century French forms of didactic writing.
My own view of these two strands of criticism, the rhetorical
and the didactic, is that they belong together. I believe that
sixteenth-century humanist tragedy is didactic or edifying - but
I use these words in a broad sense: I think that most humanist
tragedies have something to say. This may be a precise political
or religious message: 'Gaspard de Coligny was a villain, and the
St Bartholomew Massacre a good thing'; 'God requires absolute
submission and obedience.' It may be an edifying statement of a
more general kind: 'Pride is dangerous'; The higher you climb,
the harder you fall.' It may occasionally be an unresolved problem:
'Is tyrannicide justified, given that it may lead to disorder and much
suffering?'; or a specific question arising from the subject matter:
 Introduction

'What was the meaning of Alexander the Great's craving for

immortality?' I am not asserting that 'message' always preceded
'medium' in the sense that a man wrote a play because of a message
that he wanted to deliver, although plainly this must sometimes
have been the case, most obviously in plays with a strong political
or sectarian bias. I am claiming that a humanist tragedy typically
contains a thesis or problem which forms its intellectual basis, a
tenor of which various structural and stylistic elements in the play
are the vehicle.
I have suggested elsewhere that a reason why some of these plays
are more satisfactory than others may be found in the degree of
harmony between this 'message', the intellectual kernel of the play,
and the way it is embodied in the play (Jondorf, 1978,274). I find
some of these plays more pleasing than others, and some not
pleasing at all. While aware of the perils of guessing at intentions,
I surmise that the pleasure afforded by a play may be related to
how successfully the author has carried out what appear to be his
aims, and also to what those aims seem to be (I am repelled, for
example, by a play which seeks to justify the St Bartholomew
Massacre, and so have not discussed Frangois de Chantelouve's
La Tragedie de feu Gaspard de Colligny in this book). Many
humanist tragedies seem to me to have an intelligible design,
coherently and persuasively executed. It is a question of the use
of rhetoric - rhetoric in the sense of choice of diction (elocutio),
but also in the sense of choice and arrangement of material
(inventio and dispositio). Rhetoric thus transcends a fond/forme
division, for it is concerned with both, and the moral or intellectual
content is inseparable from the way in which the material is
selected, organised, and expressed.
It is in this perspective that I look, for example, at the deploy-
ment of character in Filleul's La Lucrece in Chapter 5, and at
aspects of structure in Chapter 6. Throughout, although most
explicitly in the last chapter, my object is to account for (and share)
my pleasure in these plays.
Over the last fifteen or twenty years, there has been a great
increase in the number of texts of sixteenth-century tragedies
available in modern editions, usually excellent. The genre has long
since established its droit de cite in university syllabuses. I find it
odd that some of those who have worked to promote it, with so
 French Renaissance tragedy

much erudition and skill, do not seem to like it very much or think
very highly of it. Even Raymond Lebegue, after years of pioneer
work on sixteenth-century theatre, concluded in 'Les Juives' de
Robert Gamier (1979, 5) that humanist tragedy is worth reading
because it helps us to appreciate 'les Corneille et les Racine' (I am
intrigued by his use of the plural). Donald Stone Jr declines to
commit himself on the merits or defects of the plays he examines,
or is mildly disparaging about them. Other critics (Kathleen Hall,
Christopher Smith, Enea Balmas, Fran^oise Charpentier, Odette
de Mourgues) communicate greater enthusiasm, and I hope that
this book will be seen as contributing to their efforts to encourage
readers to regard these plays as worth reading for their own sake,
and not merely as literary-historical documents or reflections of
sixteenth-century taste. In the discussions that follow, I have made
a point of referring almost exclusively to plays available in
post-1960 editions, so that inaccessibility of texts need not deter
any potential reader of humanist tragedy.
I have sometimes wondered whether readers who distrust highly
rhetorical writing are less ill at ease with a form of rhetoric which
derives a good proportion of its figures from the Bible, rather than
from Greek or Latin orators, dramatists, or poets. Could this
account in part for the widespread approval of Garnier's Les
Juifvesl Sometimes I almost wish that Gamier had never written
LesJuifves. Thierry Maulnier, for all his admiration for the plays
of Jodelle and Gamier (which he liked mainly for their poetic
qualities), described LesJuifves as *la plus ennuyeuse' of Garnier's
plays (Maulnier, 1939, 82). That is perhaps rather petulant, but
I sympathise with his exasperation. Les Juifves is a play whose
qualities are striking, and easy to appreciate; it allows readers to
feel that they have done justice by humanist tragedy, because they
like and appreciate this play. After all, it is a typical representative
of the genre; it is plainly very rhetorical - Richard Griffiths has
provided a scheme whereby the whole play is chopped up into 'set
pieces' (Griffiths, 1986, 30-1). It is Senecan, and imitative:
Nabuchodonosor's tyrant-speech, 'Pareil aux Dieux je marche', is
modelled, at least in its opening movement, on Seneca's 'Aequalis
astris gradior' (Thyestes, 885). Several of the choric odes have
obvious biblical models. As if showing how far imitation can be
pushed, Gamier has even imitated himself, his Amital recalling the
 Introduction

Hecube of his own Troade. Les Juifves is judged to be both typical

of humanist tragedy, and superior to all the rest, which is therefore
disregarded. I certainly agree that Les Juifves is a good play, but
it seems a pity to let it stand in the light, and prevent us from
enjoying other plays by Gamier, let alone by anyone else. In this
book, I have tried to bring some other plays into the light.
I have been conscious, while looking at these plays, of the
distinction made by Valery (in Tel Quel, I) between 'valeur' and
'merite':
La critique, en tant qu'elle jugerait, consisterait dans une comparaison
de ce que Tauteur a entendu faire avec ce qu'il a effectivement fait.
Tandis que la valeur d'une oeuvre est une relation singuliere et inconstante
entre cette ceuvre et quelque lecteur, le merite propre et intrinseque de
l'auteur est une relation entre lui-meme et son dessein... Une critique ...
ideale prononcerait uniquement sur ce merite, car on ne peut exiger de
quelqu'un que d'avoir accompli ce qu'il s'etait propose d'accomplir.
(Valery, 1960, 479-80)

This seems to beg some questions; there is plainly enormous

difficulty in the attempt to give an account of merite, since we
may easily misjudge the author's aim. There is also the whole
problem of reading works composed a long time ago: even if we
renounce the task of defining merite, and limit ourselves to valeur,
are we to try to imagine the responses of contemporary readers,
or rely on our own? If we try to do the former, we can never be
sure how well we are succeeding, and in any case our enjoyment
will probably be very limited if we are constantly having to make
concessions to the tastes and procedures of another time; on the
other hand, we plainly must make some attempt to equip ourselves
with the wherewithal to read as a contemporary reader would have
read, otherwise many of the works of the past will be almost un-
intelligible. Or should we look for a kind of transposed topicality,
seeking parallels between events and figures portrayed in these
plays, and modern civil strife, modern tyrants, the aftermaths of
modern wars? This exercise might be more rewardingly carried out
on overtly topical plays like the moralites polemiques (such as
those edited by Jonathan Beck (1986) under the title Theatre et
propagande aux debuts de la Reforme) than on humanist tragedy.
But even in the face of these difficulties and uncertainties, perhaps
 French Renaissance tragedy

valeur may be worth setting out, although it is 'singuliere' and

subjective, for one reader's account of valeur may enhance
another's pleasure. That is the hope in which I read works of
criticism, and in which I have written this book.
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