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Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.

Relativization in Ojibwe
Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.
 Relativization in Ojibwe

Michael D. Sullivan Sr.

Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.

Univ e r s it y of Ne bra sk a P r e ss | L inc o ln

 © 2020 by the Board of Regents of the University
of Nebraska
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America ♾

This book is published as part of the Recovering

Languages and Literacies of the Americas initiative.
Recovering Languages and Literacies is generously
supported by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.

Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data

Names: Sullivan, Michael D., Sr., author.
Title: Relativization in Ojibwe / Michael D. Sullivan Sr.
Description: Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,
[2020] | Includes bibliographical references and
index. | Summary: “Following previous dialect studies
concerned primarily with varieties of Ojibwe spoken in
Canada, Relativization in Ojibwe presents the first study
of dialect variation for varieties spoken in the United
States and along the border region of Ontario and
Minnesota”—Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: lccn 2019015765 | isbn 9781496214799
(cloth) | isbn 9781496218889 (pdf ) | isbn 9781496218872
(mobi) | isbn 9781496218865 (epub)
Subjects: lcsh: Ojibwa language.
Classification: lcc pm851 .s85 2020 | ddc 497/.333—dc23
lc record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019015765
Set in Merope by Tseng Information Systems, Inc.
Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.
 For Waadookodaading,
where the dream is in action
Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.
 Contents

List of Illustrations and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi

1. A Basic Introduction to the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1. Purpose and Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2. Ojibwe Relative Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.2.1. What Is a Relative Clause? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
1.2.2. Linguistic Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3. Ojibwe RCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.3.1. Core versus Relative Root Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.4. Variation in SW Ojibwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.3. Algonquian Dialectology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.1. Ojibwe Dialects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3.2. Implications of Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.3. Southwestern Ojibwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.3.4. Literature Review: Dialect Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.3.4.1. Rhodes and Todd (1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.3.4.2. Valentine (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.3.4.3. Nichols (2011, 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.4. Literature Review: Algonquian RCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.4.1. Rhodes (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.4.2. Johns (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
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1.4.3. Johansson (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

1.4.4. Johansson (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.4.5. Lochbihler and Mathieu (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.5. Theoretical Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.5.1. Nonconfigurationality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.5.1.1. The Pronominal Argument Hypothesis (PAH) . . . . . . . . . 56
 viii Contents

1.5.2. The Mirror Principle and the Minimalist Program . . . . . . . 59

1.5.2.1. Feature Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.5.2.2. Independent versus Conjunct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.5.3. Split-­CP Hypothesis (Rizzi 1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.6.1. Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

2. Ojibwe Morphosyntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.1. Typological Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.2. The Sound System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.2.1. The Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.2.2. Consonant Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.3. Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.3.1. Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.3.2. Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.3.3. Verbal Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
2.3.3.1. Palatalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.3.3.2. Nominalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.3.4. Preverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.4. Inflectional Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.4.1. Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.5. Topicality Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.5.1. Obviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.6. Initial Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.6.1. Wh-­questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
2.6.2. Participles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.6.3. Past/Completive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
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2.7. Word Order and Clause Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

2.7.1. The Noun Phrase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.7.2. Basic Constituency Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.7.3. The Left Periphery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.7.3.1. Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.7.3.2. Topic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
 Contents ix

3. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.1. Survey Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.2. Archival Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.3. Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.3.1. ji-­/da- Complementizer, jibwaa/dabwaa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.3.2. Preterit Peripheral Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.3.3. Neutralization of Inanimate Plural in Conjunct . . . . . . . . 157
3.3.4. Number under Obviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.3.5. Restructuring of Dependent Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.3.6. Core Demonstratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.3.7. Phonological Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.3.7.1. Nasal Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.3.7.1.1. Initial /n/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.3.7.1.2. Final Nasal in Negation Suffix -­sii(n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.3.7.1.3. Final Nasal /n/ Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.3.7.1.4. Nasal Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.3.7.2. Initial /g/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.3.7.3. Vowel and Glide Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.3.7.3.1. Labialization and Rounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.3.7.3.2. Vowel Height /i/ versus /a/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.3.7.3.3. Articulation of Glides /y/ and /w/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.3.7.4. Other Points of Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
3.3.7.4.1. Women’s Names -­k(we) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
3.3.7.4.2. /t/ Epenthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
3.3.7.4.3. Syncope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
3.3.8. Lexical Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
3.3.8.1. Body-­Part-­Incorporating Suffix -­e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3.3.8.2. -­ngwaam(i) Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
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3.3.8.3. -­aadage/-­aadagaa Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

3.3.9. Animacy Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3.3.10. TA -­aw Stem Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
3.3.11. Initial Vowel Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.3.12. Iterative Suffix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
3.3.13. Participles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
 x Contents

3.3.13.1. Southern Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

3.3.13.2. Innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
3.3.13.3. gaa- Participles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
3.4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
3.4.1. Geographic Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
3.4.1.1. Leech Lake as a Transitional Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
3.4.1.2. Intelligibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
3.4.2. Age-­Graded Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
3.4.3. Free Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

4. Relativization in Ojibwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

4.1. Ojibwe Relative Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
4.1.1. Findings: Core Argument versus Relative Root Arguments . . 263
4.1.2. Variation in Relativization Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
4.2. Theoretical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
4.2.1. Plain Conjunct Morphosyntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
4.2.1.1. Brittain (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4.2.2. Split-­CP Hypothesis (Rizzi 1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4.2.2.1. FinP as Host to Conjunct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
4.2.2.2. FocP Host to IC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4.2.2.3. ForceP and RCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
4.2.3. Cyclicity and Phases (Bruening 2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
4.3. Refining the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
4.3.1. Feature Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
4.3.2. The Structure of the Ojibwe CP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
4.3.3. Internally versus Externally Headed RCs . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
4.3.4. Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
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5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5.1. Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5.1.1. Implications of the Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
5.2. Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
5.2.1. Obsolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
 Contents xi

5.2.2. Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

5.2.3. L2 Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
5.3. Comparisons within the Algonquian Family . . . . . . . . . . 314
5.3.1. IC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
5.3.2. Algonquian Participles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.3.2.1. PA Participles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
5.4. Directions for Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

Appendix: VTA Paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.
 Illustrations and Tables

Illu st ratio n s
1. The Algic language family tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Tab l e s
1. Ojibwe verb types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
2. Initial change (IC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3. Changed conjunct versus participles for biindige ‘s/he enters’ . . . . 13
4. Inflectional forms of aabajitoon ‘use it’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5. Participial neologisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6. Participles as nominalizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7. North versus south participles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
8. Featural composition of person arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
9. Ojibwe vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
10. Ojibwe consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
11. Underlying forms and positions of nominal suffixes . . . . . . . . . 79
12. Peripheral suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
13. Demonstrative pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
14. Verb classification biin- ‘clean’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
15. Preverb position classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
16. pv1: tense-­mood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
17. Locative prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
18. Relative preverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
19. Orders of verbal inflection wiisini ‘s/he is eating’ . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
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20. Local theme signs (SAP) independent order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

21. Local theme signs (SAP) conjunct order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
22. Nonlocal theme signs (non-­SAPs) independent order . . . . . . . . 103
23. Nonlocal theme signs (non-­SAPs) conjunct order . . . . . . . . . . 104
24. Plural and obviative suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
25. gaa- prefix in place-­names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
 xiv Illustrations and Tables

26. Ojibwe A-­pronouns (wh-­questions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

27. VTI1 and VAI2 plural participle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
28. TI third-­person participles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
29. Findings from Sullivan (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
30. Word order from narratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
31. Deviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
32. Demonstrative pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
33. Nasal-­less VIIs in Odawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
34. Loss of final nasal in verb inflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
35. Angeline Williams’s variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
36. Lexical variation in SW Ojibwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
37. Sample conjunct order verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
38. VTI third-­person participles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
39. Participle innovations: gW-­ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
40. SW Ojibwe participle variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
41. A-­pronouns and wh-­questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
42. Palatalization in ForceP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
43. ‘Homes’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
44. IC patterns for Algonquian languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
45. IC in Pre-­PA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.
 Acknowledgments

Akawe niwii-­ miigwechiwiʼaa aw manidoo. Aaniish-­ naa mii waʼaw gaa-­

miininang yoʼow bimaadiziwin naa go gaye gidinwewininaan da-­gaganoonang.
As a spiritually thinking young man I always first give thanks to the mani-
doo. Since I began using my asemaa on a daily basis and following the path
it leads me on, my life has been filled with joy and experiences I would have
never dreamed of. There are countless people that should be named indi-
vidually that had a hand in the development and completion of this book;
they are probably too numerous to name though I will try. From everyone
that provided encouragement to those who doubted my academic endeav-
ors, I thank you all from the bottom of my heart for giving me the boost of
motivation to carry out this work. The pages that follow are the result of my
life’s work at this stage in time, the reason for my absence on the powwow
trail, and, ultimately, the labor that not only established my ethic as a lin-
guist and a scholar, but also set the direction for my life’s path.
I have been blessed with a beautiful family. My wife, Krysten, deserves
the most credit and recognition for this publication. Without her and her
amazing abilities as a mother and wife, I never would have made it off of
the rez to pursue my education. My children also deserve the majority of
the credit; Niizhoo, Manidood, Lexie, and Lenny have all had to sacrifice
their time with me so I could finish. Their constant questions about what
it is I have been working on soon turned into, “When are you going to be
done?” This has pushed me down the last stretch of the final chapters and
I look forward to more baseball games, 21-­tip, and our inevitable and long
overdue return to the powwow arena. Gizhawenimininim!
I was blessed to have been born to a wonderful mother. In Anishinaabe
Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.

culture we say that babies choose their parents before they are born. There
is no question why I chose my mom. She supported me through the ups
and downs of my youth and challenging early adult years, knowing that I
would eventually come to my senses and find my path. She treated me like
I was smart, even if all of the evidence observable in my attitude, behavior,
and demeanor suggested otherwise. Chi-­miigwech, mom!
 xvi Acknowledgments

I would also like to thank all of my relatives, friends, and professors,

way too numerous to name but deserving of recognition nonetheless. My
journey as a linguist began long before I ever took classes in linguistics.
As a boy on the reservation during a time when just about everyone over
sixty spoke Ojibwe regularly, my curiosity and envy were fostered early. I’d
like to thank those individuals responsible for providing the first Ojibwe
sounds that fell upon my ears. I am especially grateful for the time I spent
with the late Harold Frogg—my first fieldwork consultant—long before I
had any training or knew what I was doing. There was never a question he
didn’t appreciate or a moment when he didn’t have time for my interest and
never-­ending barrage of questions. He was so excited and supportive to see
me grow in the language. My world changed when you left niijii.
Chi-­miigwech to all of my first Ojibwe teachers I had as a little boy:
Darlene Stockinger, Mary Hart, Beverly Gouge, Monica White, and George
O’shogay. I would especially like to thank Thelma Nayquonabe for teach-
ing me Ojibwe when I was in elementary school and encouraging me as a
speaker in our community as I grew into a young man. Your support has
been crucial to my journey and success. Also, the old-­timers I used to listen
to at the dances, I say miigwech and will always remember Eugene Begay Sr.,
Bob Merrill, and my niiyawenʼenyiban Joe Shibiash. I would also like to ac-
knowledge the late Clara Bebe and Ruth Carley for providing us all insight
into the classic “LCO dialect.” To Jerry Smith and Beverly Bearheart, miig-
wech for everything that you do for the people and the generous and kind
nature in which you share your wisdom.
I would not know anything without the teachings of my elders both
here and gone. Chi-­miigwech to Larry “Amik” Smallwood (d. 2017), my prin-
cipal linguistic consultant and one of my best friends. Much of the data
given and conclusions drawn here are a result of his willingness to teach
me Ojibwe. His commitment to making sure we “get the humor” and his
Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.

composure and poise as a public speaker and storyteller have inspired me

to do more than just speak Ojibwe. Not a day goes by where I do not re-
member you with smiles and laughter. Also, miigwech to Lee “Chi-­obizaan”
Staples, who provided much of the classic southern Ojibwe analyzed in
this study. Always eager to help with my understanding of the language
and our ceremonies, Chi-­ob has been instrumental to the completion of
 Acknowledgments xvii

this study. I would also like to thank Eddie Benton-­Banai for answering my
questions and for being willing to share his immeasurable knowledge of
the language. There are also two elders who have gone on who contributed
greatly to my development as a speaker of Ojibwe and as a linguist—Rose
Tainter and Benny Rogers. I got to know both of them very well and many
of my first formal field sessions (where I actually had questions about the
system of the language itself!) were held with them as my consultants. As
those of us in endangered language revitalization know, our best friends
are often elders and these two were no exception.
I would also like to honor the memory of many of my elders who have
also since walked on: Anna Gibbs, Joe Chosa, Lillian Rice, Geno Bearheart,
Rita Corbine, Rose Burns, Mary Jane Frog, Jim Clark, Archie Mosay, James
“Pipe” Mustache, Alice Lynk, Dee Bainbridge, Phillip Taylor, Leonard
Moose, Jim Bedeau, Marlene Stately, Ray Boshey, and Jimmy Jackson. We
are working to ensure that your teachings live on. This book was written
about the language of many different elders still living who are graciously
supportive of our work. Miigwech to Nancy Jones, Mary Moose, Dora Am-
mann, Maubin Merrill, Tommy Saros, Miskobineshiinh, Dick Smith,
Eugene Stillday, Murphy Thomas, Gordon Jourdain, Elfreda Sam, Susan
Shingobe, Herb Sam, Maggie Kegg, Ralph and Delores Pewaush, Leona
Wakanabo, Geraldine Howard, David Aubid, Rosemarie Debungie, Darryl
Kingbird, Dolores Shawinimash, Eugene Goodsky, Ruby Boshey, Frances
Songetay, and Joe Nayquonabe. All of you have contributed to my journey
in your own way.
As a tribal college graduate, I could not go without thanking everyone
at Lac Courte Oreilles Ojibwe Community College for believing in me and
providing the foundation on which I would grow. Chi-­miigwech to David
Bisonette (my first Ojibwe grammar teacher!), Dr. Eric Reddix (now pro-
fessor at University of Minnesota Duluth), Tom Antell, Dan Gretz, Dr. Deb
Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.

Anderson, Jenny Schlender, Annette Wiggins, and Vernon Martin. All of

you witnessed the journey of a troubled rez kid transform into a super
nerd! Miigwech!
I can’t forget all of the folks at my undergraduate alma mater, Univer-
sity of Wisconsin–­Superior. Thanks to Dr. Marsha Francis, Sue Holm, Deb
Provost, Dr. Marshall Johnson, Dr. Deborah Augsburger (my first linguis-
 xviii Acknowledgments

tics teacher!), Dr. Michael Ball, Dr. Eri Fujeada, Ivy Vaino, Chip Beal, and
Gary Johnson. All of these people had a hand in making graduate school a
reality for me.
When arriving at the University of Minnesota to embark on my graduate
studies, I had trouble at first in finding my place. I am so grateful for the
folks in linguistics for being my friends, confidants, and advisers. I would
like to acknowledge University of Minnesota professors Dr. Brenda Child,
Dr. Mary Hermes, Dr. David Schueler, Dr. J. P. Marcotte, Dr. Brian Reese, Dr.
Nancy Stenson, Dr. Martha Bigelow, Dr. Kendall King, Dr. Elaine Tarone,
and the entire crew from CARLA. I would also like to thank my Mala-
gasy consultants, Tsitsy and Daniel, for their help during my field meth-
ods course. I also started a journey learning the Dakota language while at
the U and would like to say chi-­miigwech to Dakota Joe Bendickson. Being
a student in Joe’s classes inspired many of my teaching methods and I am
forever grateful. I also can’t forget Dennis Jones, who always welcomed
me in whatever was happening at the U. His gracious way and kind nature
has opened the door to many students who have dedicated themselves to
learning Ojibwe. Chi-­miigwech niijii. I also feel inclined to acknowledge my
fellow grad students at the U, Nora Livesay, Paul Tilleson, Dr. Muhammad
Abdurrahman, and Yolanda Pushetonequa.
I’d also like to thank the language table crew from Minneapolis: Dr. Rick
Gresczyk, one of the most kind and welcoming instructors I’ve ever known,
Laurie Harper, Laura Cloud, Yulia Bjorgen, Louise Erdrich, Hope Flanna-
gan, and many others too numerous to name. I’d also like to say miigwech
to the OOGikweg: Lucia Bonnaci, Michelle Goose, and Robin Hanks. I also
owe a lot to Chuck Fiero for always being willing to share his data and for
taking an interest in my work.
I would not have been able to attend graduate school nor finish without
the gracious support given by the D.O.V.E. Fellowship Program, the Com-
Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.

munity of Scholars, and the D.O.V.E. Summer Dissertation Fellowship pro-

gram. I specifically thank Noro Andriamanalina from the Office of Diver-
sity in Graduate Education. Mighty fine work you do. I also say chi-­miigwech
to the Lac Courte Oreilles Higher Ed. Office for their support, the Ameri-
can Indian College Fund, the American Indian Graduate Center, and the
Education Office of the Forest County Potawatomi.
 Acknowledgments xix

I’d especially like to express my thanks to my doctoral dissertation com-

mittee: Dr. Hooi Ling Soh, whose patience with me as I grappled with syn-
tactic theory sustained my sanity while I tried to make sense of Ojibwe syn-
tax. Also, thanks to Dr. Claire Halpert for being the fresh air needed when I
was selecting my committee. Her assistance and guidance to the theoretical
analysis provided here is immeasurable. I am also forever grateful for Dr.
Jeanette Gundel, my adviser through graduate school and co-­chair of my
dissertation committee. Dr. Gundel’s commitment to seeing me through
and believing in me has carried me to the finish line. Last but certainly not
least, I’d like to say chi-­miigwech to Dr. John D. Nichols. John has helped me
in so many ways. I cannot thank him enough. From bringing me on board
the Ojibwe People’s Dictionary project to sharing his vast knowledge and
resources pertaining to Ojibwe and the Algonquian family, my work never
would have even begun without John. His attention to detail and meticu-
lous ethic is something I will always strive to replicate in my own work. I
will forever be fortunate in being his student.
I’d also like to acknowledge my colleagues from the College of St. Scho­
lastica. They have shared many words of wisdom as I crawled down the
home stretch of this volume. Chi-­miigwech to Dr. David Scheuttler, Val­
erie Tanner, Dr. Jill Dupont, Dr. Elyse Carter-­Vosen, Dr. Martin Phlug,
Dr. Tammy Ostrander, Mary Lee, Pat Greenwood, Christina Woods, Dr.
Thomas Morgan, and Dr. Karen Rosenflanz. Also, my language students at
CSS have been incredible. I say miigwech to Tressa Erickson, Miigis Gonza-
lez, Misty Peterson, Winona Ojanen, Vic Huju, and Ricki Mesna.
In Ojibwe country, you can’t mention Ojibwe language revitalization
without reference to the Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Immersion
School. The pioneers of this effort are the ones who originally inspired me
to become fluent in Ojibwe and use it daily with my children. Miigwech
to Keller Paap and Lisa Laronge. The work that goes into the immersion
Copyright © 2020. Nebraska. All rights reserved.

effort is unsurpassed. Chi-­miigwech Michelle Haskins, Lisa Clemons, Dus-

tin Burnette, Brooke Mosay Ammann, Katy Butterfield, Andrea Debungie,
Nick Hanson, Brooke Simon, Cathy Begay, Carla Miller, Persia Erdrich,
Rosie Gonzalez, Willis Ford, and Bezhig Hunter, the school board (past and
present), and the LCO Tribal Governing Board.
I also owe a great deal to the language warriors who inspired my work.
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