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 The Silk Road
Connecting Histories and Futures

TIM WINTER

1
 3
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Winter, Tim, 1971– author.
Title: The Silk Road : connecting histories and futures / Tim Winter.
Other titles: Connecting histories and futures
Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2022] |
Series: Oxford studies in culture and politics | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021044585 (print) | LCCN 2021044586 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780197605066 (pb) | ISBN 9780197605059 (hb) | ISBN 9780197605080 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Silk Road—Civilization. | Asia, Central—Relations. |
China—Relations. | Geopolitics—Asia, Central—History. | Yi dai yi lu (Initiative : China)
Classification: LCC DS329.4 .W56 2022 (print) | LCC DS329.4 (ebook) |
DDC 958—dc23/eng/20211027
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021044585
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021044586

DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780197605059.001.0001

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Paperback printed by Marquis, Canada
Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America
 Contents

List of Illustrations  vii

Preface  ix
“The Silk Road,” The Morning Bulletin, Rockhampton,
Australia Saturday, 15 May 1943  xiii

1. Introduction  1
Questions of History  2
The Long Road to Global Fame  6
Thinking Geoculturally  12

PA RT O N E . C O N N E C T I N G C U LT U R E S
2. The Routes of Civilization  23
Searching for Antiquity  23
Plotting for Continents  26
3. Frontiers of Antiquity  34
The Rush for Manuscripts  34
Writing Grand Histories in the Aftermath of War and Revolution  41
4. Japan as Asia?  47
Japanese Civilization, Caught between East and West,
Tradition and Modernity  47
Searching for Buddhist Asia  54

PA RT T WO. A DV E N T U R E S I N TO
C O SMOP OL I TA N I SM
5. The Car-​tographies of Adventure  65
On Road Testing  69
6. Closed Worlds, Open Minds  79
Doors Begin to Open  85
Conclusion  89

PA RT T H R E E . A R OU T E T O P E AC E ?
7. A Divided World  97
Silk Road Diplomacy  106
vi Contents

8. Civilizations in Dialogue  114

A Politics of Heritage, from Roots to Routes  121
Exhibiting the Silk Road  124
The Road Becomes a Belt  128

PA RT F OU R . G E O P O L I T IC S
9. Metaphors of Power  141
The Return of Eurasia  148
10. Geostrategic Revivals  154
The Winds of Peace  159
Conclusion  162

PA RT F I V E . C O N C LU SIO N
11. Silk Road Futures  167
Silk Road Internationalism  168
At the Crossroads of History  175

Appendix A: Silk Road Exhibitions  185

Appendix B: Silk Road Associations and Networks  189
Notes  191
Bibliography  223
Index  245
 Illustrations

0.1 Excerpt from press pass issued for Nara Silk Road Exposition, 1988. ix
2.1 Ptolemy World Map as depicted by cartographer Nicolaus Germanus, 1482. 27
2.2 Portrait of Ferdinand von Richthofen. 29
2.3 Ferdinand von Richthofen’s map of Central Asian trade routes, 1877. 30
3.1 Site of Niya, excavated by Aurel Stein in 1900, British Library. 37
3.2 The search for antiquities and the Great Game. 38
4.1 Villa Nirakusō, designed by Itō Chūta. 55
4.2 Site of Bulguksa, pre-​and post-​restoration. 59
5.1 Map of Expédition Citroën Centre-​Asie, 1931. 71
5.2 Drawing of Barum Khan by Alexandre Jacovleff. 73
5.3 Portrait of Sven Hedin on a camel. 75
5.4 Promotional poster for the 1938 Goldwyn film The Adventures of Marco Polo. 76
7.1 Bandung Conference, a meeting of Asian and African states, 1955. 100
7.2 Monument to Hirayama Ikuo, Mogao Caves, Dunhuang. 108
7.3 Southern Silk Route stamps souvenir issued for 1964 Tokyo Olympics. 109
7.4 “Fly JAL’s new ‘silk road’ to Japan.” Promotional advert for
Japan Air Lines, 1962. 110
7.5 Commemorative stamp and envelope for Nara exhibition, 1988. 113
8.1 UNESCO Silk Roads of Dialogue Project, 1988–​1997,
modified from UNESCO, Integral Study of the Silk Roads:
Roads of Dialogue (Paris: UNESCO, 1997). 120
8.2 Replica hall for 1933–​34 World’s Fair in Chicago, containing
objects supplied by Sven Hedin. 126
8.3 2019 exhibition Sharing a Common Future: Exhibition of Treasures
from National Museums along the Silk Road, Poland exhibit. 128
8.4 Xi Jinping speech at UNESCO headquarters, 27 March 2014. 129
8.5 Image of Paul Pelliot in Dunhuang, National Museum of China,
The Road to Rejuvenation exhibition. Caption on Photograph:
“The French explorer Paul Pelliot was stealing treasures from
the Dunhuang Caves.” 132
viii Illustrations

8.6 Map of sites for Silk Road World Heritage listing and Belt and
Road economic corridors. 133
9.1 Major lines of communication in the Asian landmass, modified
from Alistair Lamb, Asia Frontiers: Studies in a Continuing Problem
(New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1968). 145
9.2 Silk Road–​themed stamps issued by Uzbekiston Pochtasi, 1997. 149
11.1 Location of Chinese land-​based archaeology collaborations,
with 28 of 36 launched post-​2013. Modified from Storozum and Li, 2020. 178
 Preface

Figure 0.1 Excerpt from press pass issued for Nara Silk Road Exposition, 1988.
Credit Line: Photo by Author.

The above image comes from a media pass to the 1988 The Grand Exhibition
of Silk Road Civilizations held in the city of Nara. Drawn from the archives of
Silk Road memorabilia, the pass tells us something about an important junc-
ture in “Silk Road” history. The exhibition took place at a moment when in-
ternational interest in the concept was gathering momentum. Its organizers
were evidently aware that the term should be treated with care and caution
and thus judiciously added quotation marks to qualify its usage. In what
might seem to be an insignificant gesture, scare quotes signal to a reader the
need to hold up a term for inspection. They attempt to withhold familiarity
and its propensity to conceal any semantic ambiguities and inaccuracies that
may be lurking below.
In the three decades since the exhibition, the term has increasingly natu-
ralized such that grammatical qualifiers are seemingly no longer required.
Indeed, despite widespread recognition that the Silk Road is a nineteenth-​
century invention, we have not seen a sustained debate about its merits and
problems as a framework for understanding complex historical events span-
ning continents and centuries. Likewise, all too often Silk Road discourses
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x Preface

present regions, cultures, and peoples in contrived and romanticized ways,

and yet the concept has rarely been subject to the types of scrutiny familiar to
postcolonial scholarship.
My intention with this book, then, is to ask the reader to re-​insert those
inverted commas, albeit metaphorically. As a small convention of punctu-
ation that carries significant analytical weight, they suggest the need to re-
tain a certain disposition of analysis and questioning. My aim is to make the
Silk Road at once both strange and more familiar, to both unsettle an idea
that is too readily taken for granted and, simultaneously, argue for greater
analytical precision in how it is used and discussed. The book calls atten-
tion to the importance of critically interrogating the means by which, and to
what ends, the term is put into circulation. As I have endeavored to show, the
Silk Road has become far more than merely a narrative of history. Today it is
about envisaging and building futures on a grand scale. By implication, many
more chapters will still need to be written, as usage of the term continues to
proliferate.
In no way, then, does the book proclaim to be definitive, not least in ac-
counting for the ways in which Silk Road discourses evolved and stabi-
lized over the course of the twentieth century in different contexts. Future
publications will furnish greater detail about its popularization in China,
Italy, and Iran or across different domains of policy. My own PhDs will show
why Silk Road discourses lie at the heart of new forms of cultural infrastruc-
ture across Asia, the illicit trafficking of objects recovered from the seabed,
and forms of digital power that involve setting global standards and new
norms of digital governance. The chapters that follow are thus offered in part
as primers for a more expansive mode of interdisciplinary enquiry. To that
end, the concluding chapter includes reflections on some potential pathways
for a field of Silk Road studies.
I extend my thanks and gratitude to the team at Oxford University Press
and in particular to Koperundevi Pugazhenthi, Emily Mackenzie Benitez,
and James Cook for their help in shepherding the text through reviews and
production. Special thanks go to James Jasper for his persistence and gen-
erosity in seeing the book through. Writing on China today exposes you to
politicized peer reviews, and in that regard, I very much appreciate the time
spent by those who offered generous and critically productive reviews of the
manuscript at different points. I would also like to thank those who have
offered feedback on drafts along the way. The book is one of the endeavors
made possible by a Future Fellowship awarded by the Australian Research
 Preface xi

Council (FT170100084). Thanks and love go to my mum for understanding

it’s a work that carries on. Once again, extra special thanks go to Toyah
Horman for her patience, resilience, and assistance. It’s been a long and
bumpy road, but I hope the oases we have discovered along the way have
made it all worthwhile. Throughout the book, the citation of East Asian
names follows the convention of family name first, except for those who pre-
dominantly publish in the West.
Parts of the book were written during lockdowns and border closers. Both
the Silk Road and ideas about internationalism seemed to be part of a world
that was disappearing from view in the turbulent and confusing times of a
pandemic. Writing at a time defined by immense suffering and disconnec-
tion seemed, in equal measure, to both contribute to and hold at bay the
gloom of meaningless activity. Like most, it is a book marked by personal up-
heaval. But lost in connectivity, I discovered true connection. That one grain
of sand, from across the desert.
 The Silk Road
The Morning Bulletin, Rockhampton, Australia
Saturday, 15 May 19431

Almost as much romance attached in ancient days to the caravan routes as

to the driblets of trade and tidings from distant lands and of different people
which flowed along them. As caravans wind through Biblical history, so did
the routes pass from inhabited regions into the wild uninhabited wastes
and so by the merest threads of paths to other worlds. Only luxury goods
could bear the cost of such transport, and so the desert and mountain robber
added more than a spice of danger to the undertaking and went as richly
caparisoned as any merchant.
Not all of those caravan routes have been closed by man’s conquest of the
air. Until recently caravans dived from Abyssinia into the heart of Africa, re-
turning months later with ivory and oasis products. The caravan routes be-
tween Tripoli and Central Africa are now dotted with aerodromes for the
accommodation of Allied bombers on their way north to the re-​conquest of
Europe, while Allied engineers are poring over maps and blue prints of the
old Silk Road which has for many centuries connected China and Russia.
To early western eyes the Silk Road appeared literally to be the golden
window of the east. Travellers—​no more truthful then than now—​saw to it
that their adventures along this romantic route lost nothing in the telling,
though silk required no tale-​spinner to ensure it a welcome. It was one of the
most highly prized products of distant China to reach Rome, and its fame
spread to the road along which it was carried. Marco Polo passed along it in
1272 on his way to proud Cathay, and military motor caravans are now car-
rying war material which passes from Krasnovodsk on the Caspian Sea, by
rail to Bukhara, Taskent and Alma Ata on the Turkman—​Siberian railway,
thence 600 miles by good road to Urumchi, thence 1000 miles by the Silk
Road to Lanchow and so to Chungking. So it is that Sinkiang, or Chinese
Turkestan, has come into highly strategic importance.
The mountains and deserts and the fiercely reclusive people have long been
the main characteristics of Sinkiang and Tibet, and nobody bothered much
xiv The Silk Road

about them until the Japanese invasion of Burma in April, 1942, closed the
Burma Road, and so severed China’s last considerable link with the outside
world. That event sent roadmakers and surveyors into the fastnesses of Tibet
to look into the matter of developing some of the old caravan routes between
there and China. They seem not to have had much success, but those who
worked from the tongue of plateau in eastern Assam may have had better
fortune. Sadiya which is the capital of this remote corner is only 700 air miles
from Chungking, is connected with the Indian railway system, and is in com-
fortable proximity to a fairly good supply. The country between Chungking
and Sadiya is mostly on end, but that is not likely to trouble carrier planes
which are mustering on the Assam plateau.
Expecting for such transport developments as may be proceeding under
the dark cloak of military secrecy, it would appear that Sinkiang still provides
the best back door through which China may have access with the west,
and that because it is traversed by the ancient Silk Road along which for
so many centuries have passed caravans of hundreds of beasts carrying the
treasures of China to an ever-​eager western world. Generations of nomadic
Tartars, Mongols and Siberians dwellers of Sinkiang valleys and uplands
have watched, since long before the Christian era, while strings of camels
and mules, led by an unladen ass for luck, wound their way westward along
the way that was little more than a hoof pad. The Silk Road is throbbing now
where for centuries it drowsed, the honk of motor horns has replaced the
tinkle of caravan bells, the stream of death dealing machines from Soviet
factories is now flowing east at 30 miles per hour, where gossamer silk for
Roman beauties drifted West at 20 miles per day. The delicate fibre of luxury
has become a steel ribbon of security for China, whose civilisation is older
than the Silk Road, against the forces of barbarism which would destroy her.
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- Note: Important consideration
Chapter 2: Research findings and conclusions
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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Example 20: Statistical analysis and interpretation
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
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- Example: Practical application scenario
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Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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Example 40: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 42: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 46: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 6: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 53: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 54: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 56: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
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