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RADIATION
ACOUSTICS
RADIATION
ACOUSTICS
Leonid M. Lyamshev

CRC PR E S S
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Lyamshev, Leonid M.
Radiation acoustics / Leonid M. Lyamshev.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-415-30999-9 (alk. paper)
1. Sound-waves. 2. Sound—Transmission. 3. Radiation sources. I. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Radiation. 2. Acoustics. 3. Radiation Effects. 4. Thermodynamics. WN 100
L981r 2004]
QC243.L93 2004
534—dc22 2003070031

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material
is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or
retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for
creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC
for such copying.
Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com

© 2004 by CRC Press LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number 0-415-30999-9
Library of Congress Card Number 2003070031
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Printed on acid-free paper
FOREWORD

Radiation acoustics is a new field of research developing at the interface of

acoustics, nuclear physics, high energy physics, and the physics of
elementary particles. It is founded upon studies and applications of
radiation-acoustic effects arising in the process of interaction of penetrating
radiation with matter.
The thermoradiation mechanism has been the best studied among the
mechanisms of sound excitation by penetrating radiation in condensed
media. According to this mechanism, sound generation is caused by thermal
expansion of a medium, and the acoustic field can be described as a rule
within the framework of linear theory.
The book considers mainly the processes of thermoradiation sound
excitation in the case of continuous (modulated) and pulsed action of
penetrating radiation on a substance. Basic laws of formation of acoustic
signals are established and the bonds between the characteristics of these
signals, radiation parameters, and thermodynamic, radiation, and acoustic
properties of substances are revealed. The efficiency and optimal conditions
of thermoradiation sound generation are considered. The particular features
of sound generation by a particle beam moving along the surface of a liquid
or solid at subsonic and supersonic velocities and an arbitrary form of
modulation of radiation intensity in the beam are described. The possibility
is discussed of the creation of virtual radiation-acoustic sources of sound in
a wide frequency range (from sound to hypersound frequencies) with
controlled parameters in liquids or solids.
We consider the particular features of thermoradiation generation of
sound by single particles. Experimental results on sound excitation by
beams of photons (laser radiation), electrons, protons, heavy ions, X-rays,
and gamma-quanta are given. Some other mechanisms of sound generation
by single particles in the process of their absorption in a medium are
considered apart from the thermoradiation mechanism, i.e., the mechanisms
of microshock waves and the bubble, dynamic, Cherenkov, and striction
mechanisms.
Applications of radiation acoustics are discussed. We have not tried to
go into the details of many of them. Our purpose is to demonstrate the
prospects of application of radiation acoustics to various fields from
microelectronics (radiation-acoustic microscopy) to geophysics (neutrino-
acoustic sounding of the Earth), and astrophysics (detection of cosmic
neutrino and muons of super-high energy by huge acoustic detectors in the
ocean).
We have not tried to review all papers on radiation acoustics. On the
contrary, we have quite deliberately not included in the book the results of
studies of nonlinear radiation-acoustic phenomena arising in the process of
interaction of powerful radiation beams with matter. Although the role of
nonlinear effects in future radiation-acoustic technologies will undoubtedly
be essential (targeted action on physical, mechanical and chemical structure
of substances, radiation-acoustic destruction of materials, etc.),
investigation of these effects still continues.
The book may be useful not only to acousticians but also researchers
and technicians specializing in adjacent and other fields as well as
postgraduates and university students.
I am very grateful to G. A. Askar’yan, F. V. Bunkin, and V. I. Il’ichev
for many useful remarks on the manuscript. L. M. Bolotova, M. G.
Lisovskaya, and B. I. Chelnokov helped me greatly in the preparation of the
manuscript for publication. I am deeply grateful to them.

L. M. Lyamshev
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

Chapter 1. PENETRATING RADIATION: GENERAL

INFORMATION 7

1. Elementary particles: Fundamental laws of the microscopic

world 7
2. Absorption of penetrating radiation in a condensed
medium 13

Chapter 2. BASIC MECHANISMS OF SOUND GENERATION BY

PENETRATING RADIATION IN CONDENSED
MEDIA 23

1. Mechanisms connected with heat release 23

2. Thermoradiation generation of sound 24
3. Initiation of microshock waves 28
4. Bubble mechanism 30
5. The Cherenkov mechanism 31
6. Striction mechanism of sound generation 33
7. Sound generation in the process of pulsed radiolysis 35
8. Dynamic mechanism 35
9. Other mechanisms of sound generation 38

Chapter 3. THERMORADIATION EXCITATION OF SOUND

IN A HOMOGENEOUS LIQUID 39

1. Equation of thermoradiation generation of sound 39

2. Reciprocity theorem in acoustics – Solution technique
for boundary problems 42
3. Excitation of monochromatic sound in a liquid
half-space with a free surface – The case of undisturbed
surface 47
4. A liquid half-space with large-scale
roughness of boundary 52
 5. The case of small unevenness 61
6. Efficiency of thermoradiation excitation of sound
in a liquid – Some estimates 72

Chapter 4. THERMORADIATION EXCITATION OF SOUND IN

AN INHOMOGENEOUS MEDIUM 75

1. Sound excitation in a liquid half-space in the presence

of a layer of another liquid at its boundary 75
2. Generation of sound in a liquid adjoining a solid layer 88
3. Liquid half-space with an inhomogeneous surface layer 96

Chapter 5. EXCITATION OF SOUND IN A LIQUID BY

RADIATION PULSES 105

1. Sound generation in a liquid by rectangular pulses of

radiation 106
2. A liquid with rough surface 113
3. Radiation pulses of arbitrary shape 116
4. Near wave field of thermoradiation pulsed source
of sound 124
5. Sound generation in a liquid with gas bubbles 130

Chapter 6. GENERATION OF SOUND IN SOLIDS BY

INTENSITY-MODULATED PENETRATING
RADIATION 137

1. Basic equations 137

2. Boundary conditions 139
3. Method for solution of boundary problems 141
4. Thermoradiation generation of sound in a solid
half-space with a free boundary 147
5. Particular features of excitation of Rayleigh waves 151
6. Solid half-space with a liquid layer at its surface 156
7. Efficiency of thermoradiation generation of sound 160
8. Influence of particular features of absorption of
penetrating radiation on sound generation 164
Chapter 7. PULSED THERMORADIATION SOURCES OF
SOUND IN SOLIDS 169

1. Sound generation by radiation pulses in

a solid half-space 169
2. Excitation of Rayleigh waves by radiation pulses 184
3. Sound generation in a solid half-space in
the presence of a liquid layer at its surface 186
4. Efficiency of sound generation 191
5. Influence of particular features of absorption
of penetrating radiation 193
6. Thermoradiation generation of sound by pulses
of non-relativistic protons 195

Chapter 8. MOVING THERMORADIATION SOURCES

OF SOUND 201

1. Sound generation by a moving thermoradiation

pulsed source in a liquid 202
2. Sound excitation by a moving thermoradiation
pulsed source in solids 213

Chapter 9. SOUND GENERATION BY SINGLE

HIGH-ENERGY PARTICLES 227

1. Sound generation by a particle in infinite space 227

2. Sound excitation by single particles in
a solid half-space 234
3. Particular features of excitation of Rayleigh waves 237
4. Efficiency of sound generation 238

Chapter 10. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THERMORADIATION

EXCITATION OF SOUND 239

1. Laser thermooptical (thermoradiation) sources

of harmonic sound oscillations in water 240
2. Sound excitation in water by laser pulses 248
3. Sound field excited by a sequence of laser pulses 252
4. Acoustic field of a moving laser thermoradiation
source of sound in water 257
 5. Laser thermooptical excitation of sound in solids –
Excitation of surface waves 270
6. Sound excitation by X-rays (synchrotron radiation)
in metals 281
7. Sound excitation by a proton beam 286
8. Excitation of acoustic waves in metals by electrons,
positrons, and γ-quanta 298
9. Sound generation by an electron beam in water 302
10. Sound excitation by a beam of ions in metals 306

Chapter 11. SOME APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION

ACOUSTICS 309

1. Scanning radiation-acoustic microscopy and

visualization 310
2. Scanning laser-acoustic microscopy 311
3. Scanning electron-acoustic microscopy 314
4. X-ray – acoustic scanning visualization 318
5. Ion-acoustic microscopy and visualization 321
6. Acoustic detection of super-high-energy particles
in cosmic rays – The DUMAND project 325
7. Neutrino for geoacoustics – The GENIUS project 330

Conclusion 339

References 343

Addendum. ACOUSTOOPTICS OF PENETRATING

RADIATION 359

1. Diffraction of X-rays and neutrons by ultrasound

in crystals 360
2. Scanning acoustic tunneling microscopy 361
3. Interferometers using matter waves –
Atom interferometers 362

SUBJECT INDEX 367

INTRODUCTION

Investigation of radiation-acoustic effects was stimulated mainly by

progress in the field of high-energy physics and the physics of elementary
particles. The latter has advanced greatly during recent decades. Particles of
tremendous energy of the order of magnitude of tens, hundreds, and
thousands of gigaelectronvolts (GeV) were obtained with the help of
accelerators and many new elementary particles subjected to amazing
interactions and inter-transformations were discovered. Quantum
chromodynamics and unified theory of electromagnetic and weak
interactions appeared. The state-of-the-art is now that physics is on the
verge of creating the unified theory of all the fundamental interactions —
electromagnetic, strong (nuclear), weak, and gravitational interactions.
Experimentation at even greater energy is needed for solution of this
problem. This needs powerful accelerators of elementary particles, which
would provide an opportunity to make the next step into the depth of the
microscopic world [2, 76, 89, 176]. Such accelerators are under design and
construction now.
As the construction of new, more powerful accelerators opens new
opportunities for advancement of investigation of elementary particles into
the field of larger and larger energies, the accelerators designed initially for
purely basic studies, are applied to a greater and greater extent in research
into the physics of solids, biology, chemistry, and medical science. They are
utilized successfully in radiation technology, defectoscopy, analysis of rare
minerals, and also (as it will be demonstrated below) in radiation-acoustic
research and technology. As a rule, these are low-energy (about several
megaelectronvolts (MeV)) accelerators like betatrons, linear accelerators,
and microtrons [13]. Now more powerful accelerators (up to several

1
2 INTRODUCTION

gigaelectronvolts) of proton, meson, and ion beams and X-rays are being
tried for these purposes.
The beginning of radiation acoustics is connected in a broad sense with
the discovery by A. Bell, W. Roentgen, and J. Tyndall [180, 195, 245] of
the optoacoustic (photoacoustic) effect, that is sound generation in a gas
volume due to intermittent (modulated) light passage or, in other words, due
to interaction of modulated optical radiation (modulated photon beam) with
a substance (gas). At the same time Bell discussed the problem of
construction of a radiophone, “a device for producing sound by radiation of
any kind” [195]. Further studies of the optoacoustic effect and its
applications served, as is known, as the basis for the development of
optoacoustics (photoacoustics) including optoacoustic spectroscopy of gases
and condensed media [74, 126]. A powerful stimulus for the development
of this field in recent decades was the construction of lasers (see [96, 127]
for example).
The first studies of radiation-acoustic effects were conducted in the
1950s and 1960s. So, for example, in 1956 Kaganov, Lifshits, and
Tanatarov considered sound radiation in a solid by a uniformly moving
electron and showed that at an electron velocity greater than the sound
velocity in a medium (lattice), the Cherenkov radiation of sound (phonons)
occurs [101]. The analogous problem was considered earlier (1953) by
Buckingham [203].
In 1955 Glaser and Rahm reported observation of tracks of particles in
the process of their passage through a metastable boiling-up liquid in a
bubble chamber according to sound (vibration) signals arising as a result of
the birth and development of bubbles [209]. In 1957—1959 Askar’yan
considered radiation of ultrasonic and hypersonic waves by charged
particles in dense media due to local heating and formation of microscopic
cavities along particle tracks. Excitation of surface and bulk waves under
the impact of a non-relativistic electron flux upon the surface of a dense
medium was considered and the problem of utilization of acoustic signals
generated by particles for detection of particles was discussed [6, 7]1. In
1963 White investigated sound generation by an electron beam in a solid
[260]2. Somewhat later (1967) Graham and Hutchison [216] measured

1
In contrast to Glaser and Rahm [209], who discussed sound radiation due to the
rise of bubbles at particle tracks in metastable media, Askar’yan [6, 7] considered
local heating arising at particle tracks in dense stable media and producing sound
pulses, as well as the bubbles generating hypersonic waves. He proposed also
acoustic detection of particles and noted the possibility of manifestation of
hypersonic pulses in the process of biological action of radiation on cells and
chromosomes (as a part of destructive effect).
2
We must note that at the same time, White conducted the first experiments on laser
generation of sound in solids. Somewhat earlier the first widely known experiments
 RADIATION ACOUSTICS 3

mechanical oscillations in quartz crystals, sapphire, etc., on their being

irradiated by electron beam pulses, and in 1969 Beron and Hofstadter, as
Askar’yan before them [6, 196], suggested that not only electrons but also
other particles can generate mechanical vibrations3.
Numerous studies of sound excitation in condensed media by electron
and proton beams and by single particles were conducted in the 1970s by
Borshkovskii, Volovik, Zalyubovskii, Kalinichenko, Lazurik, and others,
and in the 1980s, by Lyamshev and Chelnokov (see [155, 156]). Various
mechanisms of sound excitation in condensed media by penetrating
radiation were considered. The major results of these studies and the
bibliography can be found in the book [97]. The publications of many
researchers on possible applications of the radiation-acoustic effects date to
the same period (see, for example, F. Perry et al. on the application of these
effects to the dosimetry of pulsed beams of accelerated particles and to
obtaining data on the depth distribution of irradiation dose in a target [242]).
A powerful stimulus for development of research in radiation acoustics
were ideas to use radiation-acoustic effects for detection of super-high-
energy muons and neutrinos at a large depth in the ocean [8, 199], to
develop a radiation-acoustic microscope [207], and finally, the suggestion
to “sound” the Earth (using a radiation-acoustic technique) by a super-high-
energy neutrino beam from super-powerful (for super-high energy of
particles) proton accelerators of future generation named tevatrons [248].
Further publications (see, for example, [15, 151 – 154, 184]) were
connected in this or that way with these aspects. Investigations performed in
the 1950s and 1980s have been described to some extent in the book [97]
mentioned above and in a collection of articles [173].

on interaction of laser radiation with a liquid were conducted in the Lebedev

Physical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences (see G. A. Askar’yan, A. M.
Prokhorov, G. F. Chanturiya, and G. P. Shipulo, Zhurnal Eksperimental’noi i
Teoreticheskoi Fiziki, 1963, v. 44, No. 6, pp. 2180 – 2182) which led to the
discovery of the light-hydraulic effect. This paper played a fundamental role in the
development of laser and radiation acoustics.
3
Recently detection of an acoustic signal from a muon beam at the neutrino channel
of the U-70 accelerator of the Institute of High-Energy Physics (Moscow) was
reported (see A. B. Borisov et al., Zhurnal Eksperimental’noi i Teoreticheskoi
Fiziki, 1991, v. 100, p. 112). Acoustic signals from a muon flux in the muon filter of
the neutrino channel were studied. Results of measurements of signals and
theoretical estimates based on the thermoradiation mechanism of sound generation
were given. A satisfactory agreement between experimental and theoretical results
was noted that was the evidence of the dominant role of the thermoradiation
mechanism in the process of sound generation. The possibility of application of the
radiation-acoustic technique to remote determination of the characteristics of particle
beams from the accelerator was considered.
4 INTRODUCTION

A definite concept has been formed by now about the mechanisms of

sound generation by penetrating radiation. They are connected usually with
the physical phenomena (processes) resulting in the conversion of
penetrating radiation energy into acoustic energy. These processes depend
on the radiation type, on the target substance in which this radiation is
absorbed, and on the energy release mode in the absorption region. The
mechanisms of sound generation are numerous and not equal in their
efficiency [155].
Heat release is one of the most universal physical phenomena taking
place due to absorption of penetrating radiation. Thermal energy can
transform partially into sound wave energy in different ways. At moderate
released energy densities, when no phase changes occur in a substance, the
main contribution to the sound generation process arises from the thermal
expansion of a medium. This is the thermoradiation (thermoelastic)
mechanism of sound generation. In this case the sound fields can be
described within the framework of linear theory which has been developed
extensively in recent years [156].
The pattern of sound generation looks much more complex in the case
of large densities of penetrating radiation energy released in a medium. In
this case the phenomena arising are nonlinear. The effects caused by the
growth of the expansion rate of the heated region of a medium
(hydrodynamic nonlinearity) and the change of thermodynamic parameters
of a substance in the process of action of penetrating radiation (thermal
nonlinearity) turn out to be substantial. If the density of released thermal
energy increases further, more complex processes of sound generation
develop, which are connected with phase transitions, for example, in the
conditions of bubble mechanism of sound generation by penetrating
radiation [6, 64] and the mechanism of formation of shock waves [4, 72]4.
There are also “non-thermal” mechanisms of sound generation: the
Cherenkov, dynamic, striction, and other mechanisms. However, the
thermoradiation mechanism is the one best-studied up to now.
Research on radiation-acoustic effects could hardly have drawn the
attention of physicists in recent decades if it was not connected with the
prospects of its practical applications. Examples are scanning radiation-
acoustic microscopy of condensed media [157, 201, 206, 257], acoustic
detection of super-high-energy particles (the DUMAND project — Deep
Underwater Muon and Neutrino Detection) [9, 56, 67, 200, 239], research
4
We should note that discussion on the density of the energy released in a medium
in the process of absorption of penetrating radiation concerns first of all laser
(optical) radiation (photon beams). However, in a certain sense they are valid also
for particle beams and a single particle or a group of particles. In the latter cases we
can discuss the peaks of local heating and overheating leading to formation of
acoustic compression waves, microshock waves, microcavitation, and microbubbles.
 RADIATION ACOUSTICS 5

on the role of the radiation-acoustic mechanism in underwater noise

generation in calm ocean [149], and also the opportunities opening up for
the application of new generations of proton and linear super-powerful
accelerators of future generations to the production of super-high-energy
neutrino beams and the application of these beams in geoacoustics (neutrino
geoacoustics, the GENIUS project — Geological Exploration of Neutrino-
Induced Underground Sound) [185, 248] and in neutrino-acoustic ocean
tomography [236]. We should note also the important role of radiation-
acoustic effects in investigation and prediction of radiation blistering [80].
The book consists of eleven chapters. The first two chapters give data on
elementary particles, absorption of penetrating radiation in a substance, and
mechanisms of radiation excitation of sound. The next seven chapters of the
book contain the results of the theoretical treatment of thermoradiation
sound generation in condensed media, i.e., in homogeneous and
inhomogeneous liquids and solids, under the action of modulated
penetrating radiation and radiation pulses on a substance. Particular features
of the acoustic fields of moving thermoradiation sound sources are
considered. Sound excitation by single high-energy particles is analyzed.
The efficiency and optimal conditions of thermoradiation sound generation
are discussed. The theoretical consideration is based on the solutions of
boundary-value problems for the inhomogeneous wave equation with the
right-hand side in the form of the function of power density of sound
sources produced by radiation absorption in a substance. It is assumed that
this absorption obeys the exponential law, which is valid for laser (optical),
X-ray, and electromagnetic (in general) beams and with certain limitations
for beams of relativistic electrons. This has provided an opportunity to
obtain results in the final form and compare them to experimental data. At
the same time, the role of the law of radiation absorption in formation of
acoustic field of a thermoradiation sound source is analyzed, and the
conditions when the absorption law does not play a considerable role are
determined. Corresponding analytical expressions are given.
Chapter 10 presents the results of numerous experiments conducted and
published by many researchers and concerning thermoradiation excitation
of sound by modulated laser radiation and laser pulses in the cases of
stationary and moving laser beams, beams of protons and electrons in water,
and by electron, positron, proton, ion, and X-ray beams and gamma-quanta
in metals. We have to note here that comparison of these results to
theoretical conclusions proves the validity of the thermoradiation theory.
Some applications of radiation acoustics are discussed in Chapter 11.
The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate not only the variety of already
existing applications but their “large scale”. We mean both radiation-
acoustic microscopy and immense projects of the future like the DUMAND
and GENIUS projects.
CHAPTER 1

Penetrating Radiation:
General Information

This chapter provides information on particles constituting penetrating

radiation, and absorption of penetrating radiation in the process of its
interaction with a substance. Only the most general concepts are presented
here. Detailed information may be found in specialized books on particle
and nuclear physics.

1. ELEMENTARY PARTICLES: FUNDAMENTAL

LAWS OF THE MICROSCOPIC WORLD

The material world is “constructed” from elementary particles. This means

that their properties, laws of motion, and forces between them determine the
diversity of physical phenomena. Commonly the particles which cannot be
separated into components are called elementary particles. This definition
applies to electrons, protons, and neutrons, but not atoms and atomic nuclei.
Protons and neutrons together are called nucleons. Another common and
well-known particle is a light particle, i.e., photon. An electrically neutral
particle, i.e., neutrino, is much less known. It is very difficult to detect, as it
interacts with electrons and nucleons very weakly and therefore, goes
through a tremendous thickness of substance almost freely. Knowledge on
the structure of the microscopic world, i.e., physics of elementary particles,
is the basis for the whole of modern science. Studies of atomic structure

7
8 PENETRATING RADIATION: GENERAL INFORMATION

provided an opportunity to discover extraordinary properties of elementary

particles and develop a theory of motion, i.e., quantum mechanics.
Quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity are the two pillars
supporting the whole of modern physics. Such a general concept as
symmetry, which to a significant degree determines the structure of
particles and their interactions, is also fundamental for modern physics.
Modern models and theories of physics of elementary particles are
formulated in the mathematical language of the apparatus of symmetry, i.e.,
theory of groups. One of the most important parameters in quantum
mechanics is spin. All particles are separated into classes depending on the
value of their spin: particles with half-integer spins are fermions or Fermi
particles and particles with integer spins are bosons or Bose particles. The
description of spin using the mathematical apparatus of the theory of groups
became the starting point of many theories, i.e., so-called internal
symmetries. Development of symmetry schemes unifying fermions and
bosons is the goal of the supersymmetry trend and finally, the Grand
Unification Theory.
Let us turn to history. It was discovered in the first decade of the last
century that an atom consists of a nucleus and electrons. As it turned out, a
nucleus has the dimensions of 10−13 cm and the whole atomic mass is
contained in it. The density of matter is extremely high in a nucleus and is
equal to 1014 g/cm3. The charge of the nucleus is positive. Electrons move
around a nucleus at a distance of 10−8 cm. It was determined in the 1930s
that a nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. The last do not have any
charge. Electrons are held within an atom by electric forces. Physicists call
the forces binding positively charged protons with neutral neutrons nuclear
forces, due to their nature.
Pauli had predicted the existence of the neutrino already in the 1920s. It
only became possible to observe this particle experimentally twenty years
after it had been discovered because of its “ability” almost not to interact
with matter. Physicists associated this feature with forces of weak coupling
in contrast to nuclear forces, i.e., forces of strong coupling. Further
research, and first of all the studies of the nature of nuclear forces, led to the
discovery of a huge number of particles, their interaction, and
interconversion. Quantum electrodynamics, quantum chromodynamics, and
the unified theory of electric weak interaction were developed.
All particles are divided into hadrons and leptons depending on
processes they take part in. Fundamental interactions of only four types
stand behind all processes observed up to now, i.e., electromagnetic, weak,
strong, and gravitational couplings. Gravitation is universal. All elementary
particles take part in it. Sources of electromagnetic field are charges.
Neutral particles, which do not have any charge, interact with an
electromagnetic field only due to their complex structure or quantum
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