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 For my patient wife, Teri,
so that she is remembered too.
 OSPREY PUBLISHING
Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
Kemp House, Chawley Park, Cumnor Hill, Oxford ox2 9ph, uk
29 Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland
1385 Broadway, 5th Floor, New York, ny 10018, usa
E-mail: [email protected]
www.ospreypublishing.com
​ ​​
OSPREY is a trademark
​ of Osprey​ Publishing Ltd
This electronic edition published in 2023 by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
First published in Great Britain in 2023
© Don Hollway, 2023
Don Hollway has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988,
to be identified as Author of this work.
For legal purposes the Acknowledgments on p. 424 constitute an extension of this
copyright page.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any
information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing
from the publishers.
A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: HB 978 1 4728 5893 1; PB 978 1 4728 5892 4; eBook 978 1 4728 5891 7;
ePDF 978 1 4728 5894 8; XML 978 1 4728 5895 5; Audio 978 1 4728 5896 2

Image captions and credit lines are given in full in the List of Illustrations (pp. 7–8).
Artwork on p. 5 of plate section previously published in NVG 47: Viking Longship (top) and
CBT 27: Viking Warrior vs Anglo-Saxon Warrior (bottom).
Map in plate section by The Map Studio, previous published in CAM 13: Hastings 1066:
The Fall of Saxon England (Osprey Publishing, 2000)
Index by Alan Rutter
Typeset by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India

Osprey Publishing supports the Woodland Trust, the UK’s leading woodland
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To find out more about our authors and books visit www​.ospreypublishing​.com.
Here you will find extracts, author interviews, details of forthcoming events and the
option to sign up for our newsletter.
 C ONT ENT S

List of Illustrations 7
Author’s Note 9
Dramatis Personae 15

Introduction: A New Millennium 19

part one. the vikings: ad 1001–1043

I Normandy Invasion: 1001 29
II Foreigners: 1002 36
III Woe to King Aethelred: 1003–1009 44
IV The Jomsvikings: 1009–1012 60
V Hnefatafl: 1012–1014 68
VI Sons of the Fathers: 1014–1016 84
VII One King to Rule All: 1016 104
VIII Viking England: 1017–1022 114
IX Forging an Empire: 1022–1028 124
X Kingdoms, Dukedoms, Heirdoms: 1028–1030 137
XI Seeking Deliverance: 1030–1035 145
XII Power Games: 1036–1037 156
XIII Nadirs: 1037–1040 170
XIV Harthacnut: 1040–1042 178
XV Their Just Rewards: 1042–1043 190

5
 battle for the island kingdom

part two. the anglo-saxons: ad 1042–1065

XVI Edward Rex: 1042–1045 199
XVII Comeuppances: 1045–1046 210
XVIII Outcasts: 1046–1047 218
XIX Val-ès-Dunes: 1047 224
XX The Godwins: 1047–1049 231
XXI William the Bastard: 1049–1051 237
XXII Rebellion: 1051 248
XXIII Heir to the Throne: 1051–1052 256
XXIV The Return of the Godwins: 1052 263
XXV Asserting Power: 1052–1053 269
XXVI Wars in the North: 1054 275
XXVII The Godwinsons: 1055–1056 283
XXVIII War and Diplomacy: 1057 290
XXIX Supremacy: 1058–1060 297
XXX Fragile Peace: 1061 304
XXXI Conquerors: 1062–1063 312
XXXII Betrayals: 1064–1065 320

part three. the normans: ad 1066

XXXIII Challenge Accepted: Spring 1066 341
XXXIV Opening Moves: Summer 1066 350
XXXV Return of the Vikings: September 1066 359
XXXVI Hastings: October 1066 373

Afterword: Domesday, 1066–1154 401

Sources 410
Bibliography 416
Acknowledgments 424
Index 425
About the Author 432
Plates 433
6
 LI S T OF I LLU S T R AT I O N S

The vast majority of 11th-century Anglo-Saxons lived in humble

thatch-roofed shacks no bigger or better than these recreations
at West Stow village in Suffolk, England. (Midnightblueowl,
Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)
In 1013, with Viking Svein Forkbeard on the verge of conquering the
Island Kingdom, the English king Aethelred sent his wife Emma
of Normandy and their children to safety with her Norman kin.
Illustration by Matthew Paris, 13th century. (Reproduced by kind
permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library, MS
Ee.3.59, f. 4r)
In 1016 Forkbeard’s son Cnut and Aethelred’s son Edmund Ironside
agreed to rule England as co-kings, as shown in this romanticized
19th-century depiction. (Photo by: GHI Vintage/Universal History
Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)
In this illustration from the Encomium Emmae Reginae (“Elegy
of Queen Emma”), the anonymous author presents her with
her copy of the book, as her sons Harthacnut and Edward the
Confessor look on. (© British Library Board. All Rights Reserved /
Bridgeman Images)
Under the gaze of Christ, saints and angels, King Cnut and his queen
“Aelfgyfu” donate a golden cross for the altar of the New Minster
at Winchester. Aelfgifu was Queen Emma’s regnal name, but
also the name of Cnut’s first, handfast wife. (The British Library,
Stowe MS 944, f. 6, https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.
aspx?ref=stowe_ms_944_fs001r)
In this 13th-century illustration by Matthew Paris, King Harold
Harefoot orders the blinding of his rival Alfred Aetheling, while
his housecarls bully the English. (Reproduced by kind permission
of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library, MS Ee.3.59, f. 6r)

7
 battle for the island kingdom

“Where Harold made an oath to Duke William.” Whether by trickery

or coercion, William claimed Harold swore fealty to him on holy
relics. Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry, 11th century. (Photo by:
Photo12/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)
Anglo-Saxon England was twice the size of Normany, even including
its dependencies. To invade required William to leave his duchy
defenseless against the Continental enemies surrounding it. (The
Map Studio)
The Norman invasion fleet first sailed at night, following a lantern at the
masthead of Duke William’s flagship Mora. However, the Normans
were not skilled sailors and did not complete the crossing until the
next day. (Artwork by Steve Noon © Osprey Publishing)
Legend has it that at Stamford Bridge one Viking warrior single-
handedly held the entire English army at bay, killing 40 of them
with an axe before he was himself slain. (Artwork by Peter Dennis
© Osprey Publishing)
The height of the Battle for the Island Kingdom. At Hastings, Norman
knights charge the Anglo-Saxon shield wall. On the Bayeux
Tapestry both Duke William and his half-brother Bishop Odo are
shown wielding a baculus, a wooden club symbolic of religious
or royal authority but also used to beat a man to death inside his
mail armor. (Painting by Tom Lovell)
The famous “arrow in King Harold’s eye” on the Bayeux Tapestry is
thought to have originally been a spear upraised by an Anglo-
Saxon housecarl, shortened and fletched by a later embroiderer
to better depict the legend. Judging by more contemporary
descriptions of the battle, the king is more likely the axeman
struck down at right. (Pictorial Press Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo)
After the battle King Harold’s body was said to be so mutilated that
his handfast widow Edith Swanneshals (“Swan Neck” or “Gentle
Swan”) was brought to search the battlefield for it, identifying it by
marks known only to her, as shown in this romanticized Victorian-
era illustration. (traveler1116/Getty Images)
Senlac Hill. On October 14, 1066, the Normans and their Continental
allies made repeated charges from this position, up the slope
toward the Anglo-Saxon line across the crest. King Harold
Godwinson is generally thought to have made his stand where
Battle Abbey was built. (Ealdgyth, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-
SA 3.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)

8
 AU T H OR ’S NOT E

In the year 1724 historian, archivist and royal secretary Monsieur

Antoine Lancelot presented a series of sketches to Paris’s Académie
des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, in charge of royal inscriptions and
mottoes on monuments and medals. The academy’s task entailed the
study of ancient medals, relics and rarities, and therefore archeology
and history in general. Lancelot had recently acquired his drawings
from the estate of the late Nicolas-Jean Foucault, a state councillor,
intendant and scholar of Normandy. Their depiction of mounted
knights, kings crowned and a bloody hilltop battle was, in his opinion,
copied from some tomb carving, wall fresco, stained glass window or
tapestry. The original source was unknown.
The drawings swiftly came to the attention of Dom Bernard de
Montfaucon, a monk of the Benedictine Congregation of Saint Maur,
renowned for their literary and historical scholarship. A former
captain of grenadiers who had served two campaigns in the Franco–
Dutch War of 1673, since taking the cloth Montfaucon had become
France’s premier archaeologist. Today he is still considered a founder
of the science, who invented the term “paleography” for the study of
historic writing systems and the deciphering and dating of historical
manuscripts by studying their script. His Palaeographia Graeca, dating
Greek manuscripts according to their lettering and abbreviations, was
a work of such expertise that it would still be the leading source on
the subject 200 years later. None of this was to the neglect of his
religious studies, either; in 1719 he had been appointed as confessor
to nine-year-old King Louis XV.
Montfaucon had doubtless heard rumors and legends of some
tapestry dating from the Norman era, but like most Frenchmen of
the day thought nothing more of it. Yet the clues had been there all
along….

9
 battle for the island kingdom

Around the year 1100 the French chronicler and prelate Baudri
of Bourgueil composed a poem for Countess Adele of Normandy,
daughter of William the Conqueror, in which he wrote of a silken
tapestry embroidered in gold and silver, depicting the Norman
conquest of England. As described, Countess Adele’s tapestry (which
perhaps never existed) could not be Foucault’s, but had plainly
inspired Baudri’s poem.
Then again, in AD 1476, an inventory of the possessions of
Bayeux Cathedral listed “a very long and narrow hanging of linen,
embroidered with images and inscriptions, representing the conquest
of England, which is stretched around the nave of the church during
the day and during the octave of the Feast of Relics [July 1].”
In 1562 the monks of Bayeux, forewarned of the imminent arrival
of a troop of Huguenots (French Protestants in that country’s Wars
of Religion), had hidden the tapestry away – wisely, as the Huguenots
sacked the cathedral, destroying its stalls, organs, icons and relics.
Perhaps the tapestry was thought long lost as well. Over 160 years
later, Montfaucon wrote:

It took a long time to discover the place where this artwork was
found. Not doubting that M. Foucault, who had been Intendant
in Normandy, had taken this masterpiece from Caen or Bayeux, I
turned to our colleagues in that country. From the letters that they
sent me, I believe that it is a length of tapestry that is kept in the
Cathedral of Bayeux, and that is exhibited on certain days of the
year. This cloth taking the length of the Church, it is to be believed
that what we have here is only a small part of the story.

No French historian worth the title could be unfamiliar with that

story: the conquest of England by Duke William of Normandy.
By Montfaucon’s time the tale had been told by any number of
chroniclers, historians and writers, on both sides of the Channel. In
addition to their duke, there was a plethora of Williams among them:
William of Malmesbury, William of Jumièges, William of Poitiers; few
people used surnames in those days. In retelling the story for a modern
audience, let us differentiate them like English aristocracy, by their
place names only, by the abbeys in which they wrote: Malmesbury,
Jumièges, Poitiers. And for consistency, our other sources as well:

10
 author’s note

Worcester, Gaimar, Huntingdon, Wendover, Rievaulx. (I’ll introduce

them at length where each comes into the story, but for easy reference,
see the complete list in the back of this book.) Many of these writers
were anonymous, and some so far back in time that they did not even
write in Latin, but in archaic forms of their own languages, which has
made trouble for historians and authors ever since.
The tongue in which Anglo-Saxons framed their thoughts, Old
English, Aenglisc, was very different from modern English, more
resembling modern German. The meaning of a sentence depended
less on word order than on inflections denoting case and gender. For
readers who might like a slightly deeper dive into the mechanics of
Anglo-Saxonish – and why this story is written as it is – we might
(briefly, I promise) dig right down to the letters used. Initially, the literate
Anglo-Saxons wrote with the old runic alphabet, futhorc,* suitable for
short inscriptions on weapons, runestones, magic incantations and
the like. Long passages were not written down but, in the tradition of
most illiterate societies, passed on orally. When it became necessary to
compile the annals of their history as a people, Anglo-Saxon scribes
employed the Læden stæfrof, the version of the Latin alphabet used to
write Old English. Before the Norman Conquest, with J, K, Q, V and
Z unused, it consisted of just 24 letters. Two – ash (Æ, lowercase æ)
and eth (Ð, lowercase ð) – were derived from existing Latin letters,
and two others – wynn (Ƿ, lowercase ƿ) and thorn (Þ, lowercase þ) –
were from the runic system. Since none of these letters appear in the
modern English alphabet, I have followed convention in substituting
ae or e, d, w and th respectively, so that a modern English audience
may read, for example, King Aethelred rather than Æþelræd. In a few
instances, though, I have chosen to keep the original letters for sheer
effect. (My book, my rules.)
As in The Last Viking, I have used a similar approach for Old
Norse names in this book, and have dropped the nominative case
endings (for example, Haraldr becomes Harald, and Sveinn becomes
Svein). In addition, bearing in mind that certain spellings will be more

*
The Anglo-Saxon futhorc differed from the Germanic Elder Futhark in having 26 runic
characters instead of 24. The Elder Futhark rune ᚨ, called ansuz (transliterated as the letter a),
became three: ᚫ, æsc (æ); ᚪ, ac (a); and ᚩ, ōs (o).

11
 battle for the island kingdom

familiar to readers, I have gone with Anglicized versions of names

such as Eric Hakonsson (Eirikr Hakonarson).
Also, in Old English the letter C originally represented the hard C
sound, for which Old Norse uses the letter K, which is how Danish
Prince Knut became English King Cnut. (It was later Norman and
French authors, writing in Latin and unsure how to phonemicize
“Cn,” who spelled out his name as “Canute.”) Since this is a book
about England, I have gone with his English name throughout.
I have also updated translations, whether from the original Old
English, Latin, French, archaic or even Victorian English (which never
uses five words when ten will do) to more modern speech patterns,
not striving for a word-for-word match but, to the best of my ability,
preserving the original writers’ intent as I see it. Any transcription
errors are therefore mine.
I suppose I should address any objections to the use of BC/AD
dating (Before Christ/Anno Domini, In the Year of the Lord), rather
than the “religiously neutral” BCE/CE (Before Current Era/Current
Era). Since both systems use Christ’s admittedly arbitrary birthdate as
a dividing line, and both refer to the same numerical years before and
after, it seems to me rather contrived to require non-religious terms
for dates still framed in terms of religion. The Venerable Bede for one,
although writing in Latin, used BC and AD in his 8th-century treatise,
De Temporum Ratione, “The Reckoning of Time.” The Anglo-Saxons
measured their years in terms of BC and AD; therefore, so shall we.*
More recently, and sadly, as I write it appears the term “Anglo-
Saxon” itself is deemed by some to be offensive and a term of pride
among so-called “white supremacists.” The argument seems to be that
the medieval English did not refer to themselves as Anglo-Saxon – in
Old English, Angelcynn – and that the term only came into vogue
during the period of imperial British colonialism and expansion, and
of American slavery and racial division. I am lucky enough to have

*
As shall be seen, exact dating for events in our story will prove problematic, since January 1
was not universally accepted among Anglo-Saxons as the start of a new year. Some annalists
set it at the preceding Christmas or winter solstice, others with the spring equinox in March or
even the fall equinox in September. According to Bede, the Anglo-Saxon calendar, following the
cycle of the moon, was further complicated by the occasional addition of a thirteenth month in
midsummer, to stay in step with the seasons. For much of the Middle Ages in most of Western
Europe, including England and Scotland, New Year’s Day was March 25. Scotland did not
convert to modern dating until January 1 of the year 1600, and England not until 1752.

12
 author’s note

gained audiences on both sides of the Atlantic, and the term “Anglo-
Saxon” has traditionally had a less toxic connotation in the United
Kingdom than that being assigned to it in the United States. However,
since this is a book in part about the historic Anglo-Saxons, let me
just say this.
I suspect none of us will ever really know what the great majority of
the Anglo-Saxons called themselves, because it was hardly ever written
down in their language. I would concede that most of them did not
think of themselves as Angelcynn, or even English, but as Mercian,
Northumbrian, Kentish, West Saxon, et cetera. Those kingdoms
originally spoke separate, unique dialects of Old English, mutually
comprehensible but clearly identifying the speaker as “different,” the
way international speakers of English can recognize each other today
– evidence of how insular those peoples were. By far the vast majority
of Anglo-Saxons, illiterate and tied to their own little plots of land,
thought of themselves as nothing more than members of their village,
viewing anyone from beyond a radius of a few miles as an outsider.
That disunity is one of the reasons why they were overrun by the
Danes, who were from a country smaller and more tightly knit than
most of those in England at the time, and who further altered the
speech of their eastern and northern parts of England with their Old
East Norse.
All that said, what matters is not what the medieval English
called themselves, but what others called them. It was medieval
chroniclers on the Continent who first referred to Angli Saxones,
Angulsaxones, Angolsaxones or Anglosaxones, to distinguish them
from the continental Saxons who didn’t make the Channel crossing.
Pre-Conquest English kings adopted Latin terms in manuscripts,
charters (land deeds), legal documents and, importantly, their title,
even in their very coronation rites: rex Anglorum [et] Saxonum, rex
Angulsaxonum and rex Anglo Saxonum, King of the Anglo-Saxons.
The very first inscriptions in the late M. Foucault’s sketches were
of a seated king, REX, and a horse-borne warrior, HAROLD DUX
ANGLORUM.
Montfaucon recognized those figures on sight. Later he recalled:

To draw it I sent to Bayeux M. Antoine Benoît, one of the most

skillful draftsmen of that time, with orders to reduce the images to

13
 battle for the island kingdom

a certain size, but not to change anything in the historical style of

the artwork. Even flavor of the coarsest and most vulgar kind must
not be changed, the preservation of crudity being, in my opinion, an
important part of historiography. We learn here many customs of
that time, of arms, of war, of the navy, and of many other subjects.
The history represented in the artwork and in the inscriptions of the
tapestry is in perfect conformity with the best historians of its era,
and teaches us many things that they passed over in silence.

In that same manner, let us now uncover that which is also too often
passed over in silence: the six and a half decades leading up to those
first panels on the Bayeux Tapestry, and the eighteen or so months
leading to its bloody conclusion.
Don Hollway
December 2022

14
 DR A M AT I S PERS O N A E

THE VIKINGS

Cnut Sveinsson, the Great: Son of Svein Forkbeard, King of England 1016–
1035, King of Denmark 1018–1035, King of Norway 1028–1035
Eilif Thorgilsson: Brother of Ulf, jarl under King Cnut
Eric Hakonsson: Jarl of Norway 1000–1012, Earl of Northumbria 1017–
1020s, father of Hakon Ericsson
Hakon Ericsson: Son of Eric Hakonsson, Jarl of Norway 1012–1015 and
1028–1029
Harald II Sigurdsson, the Hard Ruler: Half-brother of Olaf, uncle of
Magnus, King of Norway 1045–1066
Harald II Sveinsson: Son of Svein Forkbeard, King of Denmark
1014–1018
Harold I, Harefoot: Son of Cnut, King of England 1035–1040
Harthacnut: Son of Cnut, King of England 1035–1042
Heming Haraldsson: Jomsviking, brother of Thorkell the Tall
Magnus Olafsson, the Good: Son of Olaf, King of Norway 1035–1047
Olaf I Haraldsson, the Stout: Father of Magnus I, King of Norway
1015–1028
Stigand: Chaplain and advisor to Cnut, Harefoot, Harthacnut, and
Emma of Normandy, Archbishop of Canterbury 1052–1070
Svein Haraldsson, Forkbeard: Father of Cnut the Great, King of Denmark,
986–1014, King of Norway 986–995 and 1000–1014, King of England
1013–1014
Thorkell Haraldsson, the Tall: Leader of the Jomsvikings
Ulf Thorgilsson: Jarl of Skane, later jarl and regent of Denmark

15
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22

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dein appellatur man

loco suum

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