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Title Pages

University Press Scholarship Online

Oxford Scholarship Online

The Specter of Speciesism: Buddhist and

Christian Views of Animals
Paul Waldau

Print publication date: 2003

Print ISBN-13: 9780195145717
Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: November 2003
DOI: 10.1093/0195145712.001.0001

Title Pages
(p.i) The Specter of Speciesism

(p.ii) Recent Titles in American Academy of Religion Academy Series

(p.iii)

The Specter of Speciesism

(p.1) The Specter of Speciesism (p.2)

The Man in the Yellow Hat: Theology and

Psychoanalysis in Child Therapy
Dorothy W. Martyn

The Grace of Difference: A Canadian

Feminist Theological Ethic
Marilyn J. Legge

The Intersubjectivity of the Mystic: A Study

of Theresa of Avila's Interior Castle
Mary Frolich

Narrating History, Developing Doctrine:

Friedrich Schleiermacher and
Johann Sebastian Drey
Bradford E. Hinze

Analogical Possibilities: How Words Refer

to God

Page 1 of 4
Title Pages

Philip A. Rolnick

Womanist Justice, Womanist Hope

Emilie M. Townes

Women Don't Count: The Challenge of

Women's Poverty to Christian Ethics
Pamela K. Brubaker

The Exploration of the Inner Wounds—

Han
Jae Hoon Lee

Comprehending Power in Christian Social

Ethics
Christine Firer Hinze

The Greening of Theology: The Ecological

Models of Rosemary Radford Ruether, Joseph
Stiller, and Jürger Moltmann
Steven Bouma‐Prediger

The Spirit and the Vision: The Influence of

Christian Romanticism on Development of
19th‐Century American Art
Diane Apostolos‐Cappadona

The Freedom of the Spirit: African Indigenous

Churches in Kenya
Francis Kimani Githieya

Bridge‐Makers and Cross‐Bearers:

Korean‐American Women and the Church
Jung Ha Kim

God Bless the Child That's Got Its Own:

The Economic Rights Debate
Darryl M. Trimiew

Energies of the Spirit: Trinitarian Models

in Eastern Orthodox and Western Theology
Duncan Reid

The Goddess Laksmi: The Divine Consort

in South Indian Vaisnava Tradition
P. Pratap Kumar

Creative Dwelling: Empathy and Clarity

in God and Self
Lucinda A. Stark Huffaker

Page 2 of 4
Title Pages

Hospitality to Strangers:Empathy and the

Physician‐Patient Relationship
Dorothy M. Owens

The Bonds of Freedom: Feminist Theology

and Christian Realism
Rebekah L. Miles

The Specter of Speciesism: Buddhist and

Christian Views of Animals
Paul Waldau

2002

(p.iv)

198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press,
or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the
appropriate

Page 3 of 4
Title Pages

reprographcs rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction

outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights
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Oxford University Press, at the address above

You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Waldau, Paul.
The specter of speciesism : Buddhist and Christian views of animals /
Paul Waldau.
p. cm.—(American Academy of Religion academy series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0‐19‐514571‐2
1. Speciesism—Religious aspects—Buddhism. 2. Speciesism—
Religious aspects.
3. Animal rights—Environmental aspects. 4. Animal welfare—Moral
and ethical aspects.
I. Title II. Series.
BQ4570.A53 W35 2001
291.5'963—dc21 00‐051653

(p.v)

Page 4 of 4
Dedication

University Press Scholarship Online

Oxford Scholarship Online

The Specter of Speciesism: Buddhist and

Christian Views of Animals
Paul Waldau

Print publication date: 2003

Print ISBN-13: 9780195145717
Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: November 2003
DOI: 10.1093/0195145712.001.0001

Dedication
(p.vi)

To a father,
who invited all of his children to explore the world,
and to a mother,
whose natural compassion gave her children
the ability to care about those
we have encountered in our own life journeys

Page 1 of 1
Preface

University Press Scholarship Online

Oxford Scholarship Online

The Specter of Speciesism: Buddhist and

Christian Views of Animals
Paul Waldau

Print publication date: 2003

Print ISBN-13: 9780195145717
Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: November 2003
DOI: 10.1093/0195145712.001.0001

(p.vii) Preface
The broad topic “religion and animals,” though in important respects an ancient
concern, remains an area that has not been worked out systematically by
modern scholars. If one scours publications from the fields of religious studies,
theology, anthropology, ethics, or any of the other fields increasingly dealing
with one or both of the topics “religion” and “animals,” one will not find a work
that attempts to lay out the many issues that arise when one tries to assess the
relationship of these two vast subjects. In such a circumstance, it is difficult to
see many, let alone all, of the inevitable pitfalls awaiting that person who tries to
say something general about the relationship of these important realms of
human experience.

Page 1 of 2
Preface

Such an attempt is, however, sorely needed for many reasons. For example,
grappling with the constructed nature and ideological character of Buddhist and
Christian views of nonhuman animals has great potential for contributing to
contemporary projects of reconceptualizing Buddhist and Christian teachings
and practices. This is true not only with regard to the views and treatment of
nonhuman animals in the light of the new zoological knowledge but also with
regard to ecological issues generally. Indeed, the very attempt to identify
tendencies to construct value systems, worldviews, and lifeways that either
intentionally or inadvertently marginalize “others,” whether they be human or
otherwise, is of momentous importance today. It has broad relevance to many
contemporary exclusions, not the least of which are the exclusions that concern
the contemporary social and environmental justice movements. As the
antisexism and antiracism movements have often shown, identifying the
underpinnings of one exclusion often enables us to see better the underpinnings
of others.

Given the state of this developing field, the first attempts may well stumble or
even wander aimlessly, for the terrain is both vast and daunting. Indeed, as is so
often the case with human endeavors, mapping this terrain will likely be
accomplished only collectively through the efforts of many, many people. This
book begins the journey, taking a few of the preliminary steps encountered when
one tries to assess the characteristics of Buddhist and Christian views of the
living beings outside the human species. What follows is a slightly revised and
updated version of a doctoral dissertation submitted by the author to the
University of Oxford in September 1997 under the title “Speciesism in
Christianity and Buddhism.” (p.viii)

Page 2 of 2
Acknowledgments

University Press Scholarship Online

Oxford Scholarship Online

The Specter of Speciesism: Buddhist and

Christian Views of Animals
Paul Waldau

Print publication date: 2003

Print ISBN-13: 9780195145717
Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: November 2003
DOI: 10.1093/0195145712.001.0001

(p.ix) Acknowledgments
Completion of one's first book is a distinctive event, and certainly cause for
reflection on the fact that, even if only one “author” is listed, so very many
others inevitably contribute in obvious or subtle ways to a long publication or
work of art. To remind oneself of this simple but crucial fact, as well as to alert
those who read the book carefully and from cover to cover, it is the custom to
honor the roles of those who were most significant.

Keith Ward, John Hick, and Andrew Linzey must be acknowledged first. Each in
his own way has been a remarkable guide for me, as well as a personal friend.

Other friends such as Pascal Marland, Nat Greene, Louisa Vessey (now Greene),
Laurie Claus, and Niles Pierce added the texture of daily support. Dan and
Francine Robinson also provided much community and inspiration. Intellectual
and other deep companionship came from Diana Butler‐Bass and Kristin
Aronson, two very special women indeed. Diana, for your remarkable support as
I conceived and wrote the project, and Kristin, for your sensitive, informed
reading of the official dissertation transcript, I will long be grateful. Harvard
Divinity School's Tovis Page and Jonna Higgins‐Freese also provided much
special support, and the remarkable trio of Sarah Luick, Steve Wise, and Theo
Capaldo of Boston constantly stimulated me to think about many different
issues, but most especially the real‐world animals whose lives are so affected by
human actions.

Page 1 of 2
Acknowledgments

The Spalding Trust's financial support, and the support of the Center for the
Study of World Religions at Harvard during 1997, also must be acknowledged. In
their quiet manner, these institutions support scholars in important and varied
ways. (p.x)

Page 2 of 2
Abbreviations

University Press Scholarship Online

Oxford Scholarship Online

The Specter of Speciesism: Buddhist and

Christian Views of Animals
Paul Waldau

Print publication date: 2003

Print ISBN-13: 9780195145717
Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: November 2003
DOI: 10.1093/0195145712.001.0001

(p.xv) Abbreviations
The bibliography contains additional information regarding the editions and
translations of the scriptural works listed here.

A.
A”nguttara‐Nik a ya
Abhi‐P.
Abhidamma Pi.taka
A‐S.
Abhidhammatha‐Sa”ngaha (Compendium of Philosophy)
b.c.e.
Before the common era and equivalent to B.C. (before Christ), that is,
before the year 0 in the Western calendar
Bv.
Buddhava.msa
c.e.
Of the common era and equivalent to A.D. (anno Domini), that is,
after the year 0 in the Western calendar
Cp.
Cariy a pi.taka
D.
D i gha‐Nik a ya
Dk.
Dh a tukath a
Dpda.
Dhammapada

Page 1 of 4
Abbreviations

DPPN
Dictionary of Pali Proper Names by M a l a l a sekera
Dsan.
Dhammasa”nga.ni
DW
Walshe's translation of D i gha‐Nik a ya
HBD
Harper's Bible Dictionary
IB
The Interpreter's Bible
Itv.
Itivuttaka
J.
J a takas
JB
The Jerusalem Bible
Khp.
Khuddakap a .tha translation by ∼N a .namoli
Khp2.
Khuddakap a .tha translation by Mrs. Rhys Davids
KhpA.
Buddhaghosa's commentary on Khp. known as Paramatthajotik a
KJV
King James Version Bible
Kv.
Katthuvatthu
LXX
Septuaginta: Id est Vetus Testamentum Graece Iuxta LXX Interpretes;
occasionally “Septuagint” for stylistic reasons
M.
Majjhima‐Nik a ya translation by Horner
MA.
Papan∼ncas u dan i Majjhimannik a ya.t.thakath a
Mil.
Milindapa∼nha
MNB
∼N a .namoli and Bodhi translation of the Majjhima‐Nik a ya
MSBB
Chalmers translation of the Majjhima‐Nik a ya in Sacred Books of the
Buddhist Series
Mv.
Mah a vastu
(p.xvi)
NEB

Page 2 of 4
Abbreviations

The New English Bible: The Old Testament

NRSV
The Holy Bible containing the Old and New Testaments with
Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books, New Revised Standard Version
OED
Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed. (compact disc)
Pat.
Pa.t.th a na
PED
Pali‐English Dictionary
Pm.
Pa.tisambhid a magga
Pp.
Puggalapa∼n∼natti
Pv.
Petavatthu
RSV
Revised Standard Version
Sam.
Sa.myutta‐Nik a ya
SBB
Sacred Books of the Buddhists Series
SBE
Sacred Books of the East Series
Sn.
Suttanip a ta
SP
Saddharma‐Pu.n.dar i ka or The Lotus of the True Law
Tag.
Therag a th a
Tig.
Ther i g a th a
U.
Ud a na
UA.
Dhammap a la's commentary on the Ud a na
USBB
Woodward's translation of the Ud a na
Vib.
Vibha”nga
VibPali
The romanized Pali text of Vibha”nga
Vv.
Vimanavatthu

Page 3 of 4
Abbreviations

VvA.
Dhamap a la's commentary on Vv.
Vin.
Vinaya Pi.taka
Vis.
Visuddhimagga
Vul
The Vulgate, and specifically, Biblia Sacra: Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem

Page 4 of 4
Introduction

University Press Scholarship Online

Oxford Scholarship Online

The Specter of Speciesism: Buddhist and

Christian Views of Animals
Paul Waldau

Print publication date: 2003

Print ISBN-13: 9780195145717
Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: November 2003
DOI: 10.1093/0195145712.001.0001

Introduction
Paul Waldau

This is a study of how other animals have been viewed in the Buddhist and
Christian religious traditions. At first glance, providing an account of these
traditions' views, or indeed of the larger subject “religion and animals,” may
seem a relatively simple task. Upon examination, however, the topic swells into a
multitude of diverse issues, a number of which are extraordinarily complex.

Some of the complexities stem directly from the well‐known fact that the
Buddhist and Christian traditions are far from monolithic. It is a commonplace
among scholars of comparative religion, for example, that each of these
traditions is extraordinarily internally diverse. Upon even a cursory examination,
one finds that, over the millennia of their existence, these traditions have
provided an astonishing array of views and materials, some of which are in
significant tension with each other. Since such diversity leads to challenging
problems on virtually any subject that believers, scholars, and other interested
parties might explore, it also affects significantly many issues that arise when
one seeks to describe each tradition's views of animals.

Page 1 of 7
Introduction

A very different set of complexities arises from the fact that the category
“animals” is also well described as “internally diverse.” In other words, the living
beings included when we use the generalization “animals,” however it is defined,
can be startlingly different from one another. Many are mentally, socially, and
individually very simple, but others are so complicated and enigmatic mentally
and socially that we may not have the ability to understand their lives well.
Indeed, as pointed out in this study, at times various animals are so different
from one another that failure to use some description other than the
generalization “animals” risks crass oversimplification and profoundly
inaccurate descriptions.

A third and equally decisive factor that complicates our approach to the awe‐
inspiring complexity and diversity of problems we collect under the rubric
“religion and animals” is something altogether closer to home. This is the fact
that our most familiar ways of talking about “animals,” are, upon careful
examination, coarse caricatures. As will be discussed later, these familiar
patterns of speaking often mislead in the extreme because they are dramatic
oversimplifications of the realities that we seek to describe and otherwise
engage when inquiring about the “animals” side of “religion and animals” topics.

Given the difficulties that our everyday and even scholarly habits of discourse
involve when we try to talk about religion and/or animals, some care is in order
when considering just what we might say about the rich intersection of religious
and animal issues. For example, though they will likely seem somewhat awkward
at first, the terms “other animals” and “nonhuman animals” are frequently used
in this work as a reminder that the prevailing uses of the term “animals” have
some very unusual (p.4) features. “Animals” in contemporary English usage, as
in many other familiar languages, usually means, of course, only “all animals
other than humans.” What makes this use peculiar, from one vantage point at
least, is the fact that virtually every speaker of English is also familiar with uses
of “animals” that include humans. Whenever, for example, someone restates
verbatim Aristotle's claim that “man is the only animal who has the gift of
speech,”1 listeners are not surprised in the least by reference to humans as
animals.

Page 2 of 7
Introduction

The coexistence of these two conflicting senses of “animals” reflects our general
awareness of connections between all animals, human and otherwise, even as
many value systems, and certainly the dominant ones in the developed world,
emphasize the special role that human animals have so often accorded
themselves on this planet. Thus, even though use of the term “animals” for
members of the human species is, by and large, uncontroversial, reliance on
phrases such as “human animals” and “nonhuman animals” disturbs some
readers because they perceive the recurring phrase to signal an agenda, if you
will. What is not noticed so readily is that the more common use, as in the
phrase “humans and animals,” also advances an agenda or worldview. In fact,
the phrase “humans and animals” is so commonly used that its underlying
agenda or metamessage—that humans are distinct from all other animals—is not
easily noticed even though the phrase is, logically, a problem (this is discussed in
chapter 5).

In order to get beyond the caricature, impoverishment, and stilted

conceptualization that reliance on any single discipline, vocabulary scheme,
tradition of speaking, or, to use the phrase common in this study, “tradition of
discourse” would threaten, I use an interdisciplinary approach. This combination
of different orientations, concerns, and vocabularies is used to help identify and
organize problems, assisting the reader in a survey of the various kinds of
limitations and issues involved in assessing Buddhist and Christian views of
other animals. Thus, certain words, concepts, and perspectives developed
outside of these two religious traditions, as well as outside the academic fields
that have been involved in the study of religious phenomena, are used to identify
and then clarify features of the prevailing attitudes toward animals.

In part I, “Religion and Speciesism,” the cumulative and internally diverse

nature of religious traditions, as it is relevant to an examination of views of
nonhuman animals, is addressed (chapter 1). In chapter 2, the concept
“speciesism” is introduced as an interpretive tool. Richard Ryder coined the
word in 1970, and since then the noun “speciesism” and the adjective
“speciesist” have come to be used widely, though by no means universally.
Chapter 2 surveys the history of the concept by evaluating various uses by
philosophers and others who clearly value the term. An examination of these
various uses, however, shows that many different concepts have been called
“speciesism.” Likewise, many facile, inadequate definitions of the term have
been offered.

Page 3 of 7
Introduction

After an examination of the context in which the term was originally used and
some of the purposes for which it was coined, I suggest a working definition to
be used as a tool in assessing early views found in the Buddhist and Christian
traditions. This definition has been designed to meet some of the objections to
various (p.5) criticisms of the term's use. Interestingly, even though the term
has received significant play in certain philosophical circles, the discussion has
been inconsistent. A review of contexts in which the term appears, whether
philosophical, journalistic, or theological, or the context of activism, shows that
it has often been used without definition, and that even when definitions have
been offered, they have not been rigorous or carefully tied to the term's origin as
a challenge to a particular type of exclusion. Such facile uses of the word out of
context have led some critics to assert that no valid concept called “speciesism”
can be framed.

Chapter 3 examines the criticisms of several prominent philosophers in detail.

An analysis of the limitations of the concept of speciesism reveals that it is not a
panacea. It also reveals, however, that some features of the term's use are quite
valuable, even if limited in scope. Of some note is the fact that various critics'
ploy of holding poor definitions and overreaching uses of “speciesism” to be
representative of the whole range of concepts and uses to which the term can be
put is itself a rhetorical approach not justified by careful examination. Even if
scrupulous examination of some uses of “speciesism” and “speciesist” reveals
various shortcomings, then, there remain uniquely valuable uses for a carefully
drawn definition of speciesism. In particular, Ryder's original critique of the
exclusion of all nonhuman animals from centrally important moral protections,
referred to later as the “antispeciesism critique,” is a valuable tool. It permits
one to identify certain features of some common approaches to determining
which living beings should matter to informed moral agents. Part I thus
concludes that while some uses are inexcusably vague, there are valuable uses
that make the term “speciesism” a helpful and valid tool for identifying and
assessing the rationale for various claims made in the Buddhist and Christian
traditions.

Page 4 of 7
Introduction

Part II takes a very different tack, turning first to what is known about specific,
distinctive nonhuman animals. Chapter 4 is an examination of information about
some other animals that has been developed in highly specialized biological
sciences. Chapter 5 is an examination of certain reasoning and discourse habits
that characterize statements found not only in the early Buddhist and Christian
materials but also in contemporary societies of the developed world. Throughout
this chapter, various features of more rigorous reasoning and careful discourse
are proposed. The chapter also includes the argument that any attempt to
address the substance and implications of the ways in which the Buddhist and
Christian traditions engaged other animals cannot be successful if one focuses
solely on views held about the general category “other animals.” In addition, one
needs to focus on what was said about certain specific nonhuman animals.
Further, for the reasons stated in part II, the animals used as representatives of
nonhuman animals' abilities must not be poor representatives but, rather, the
more complicated, so to speak, of nonhuman animals. Thus, this study seeks to
assess the ways in which early Buddhists and Christians saw or dealt with the
more complicated biological individuals outside the human species, such as
other great apes,2 elephants, and whales and dolphins (called the “key animals”
or “key species”).

Parts III and IV are, respectively, reviews of Buddhist and Christian materials.
Chapter 6 reviews those portions of the ancient collection of Buddhist texts
known (p.6) as the Pali canon. Focusing on the vocabulary used in these texts,
chapter 6 argues that the manner of reference to nonhuman animals reveals
both some important negative attitudes and a persistent refusal to investigate.

Chapter 7 evaluates the common view that the Buddhist tradition is sensitive to
nonhuman animals and concludes that this claim is often overstated in a way
that misleads. In fact, as shown in chapter 7, the tradition has a highly
ambivalent view of existence as a nonhuman animal, one element of which is
very derisive and dismissive of the realities of nonhuman animals. Part III
concludes that a rigorous concept of speciesism is helpful in identifying certain
important features of the early Buddhists' views of nonhuman animals. More
specifically, the early Buddhists, and in important ways the entire tradition in
reliance on the foundational insights appearing in early strata of the tradition,
characteristically held mere membership in the human species to be an
achievement of a moral nature. A corollary of this claim was that mere
membership in the human species was such an elevated status that humans
were rightfully entitled to benefit from practices that were obviously harmful to
some other animals. Thus, uses of even the most complicated nonhuman
animals, such as elephants, were deemed to be humans' prerogatives under the
moral order even when such uses clearly harmed the nonhuman individuals.

Page 5 of 7
Introduction

Part IV focuses first on Old and New Testament views of other animals and then
on those general views as they were worked out by major postbiblical
theologians through Augustine (chapter 8). The method used here is an
examination of the Hebrew terms found in texts of the Hebrew Bible that the
Christians inherited as the Old Testament and of the Greek and Latin words used
by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus of Lyons, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and
Augustine of Hippo, as well as various words found in the Septuagint and
Vulgate.

Chapter 9 provides an assessment of early Christians' views, concentrating on

the notions of dominion, sacrifice, and the narrowing of the rich and sometimes
contradictory values regarding nonhuman animals that were part of the Hebrew
view of the surrounding world inherited by the early Christians. In summary, the
early tradition established a view regarding humans and other animals that still
operates for many Christians today. This claim is that each and every member of
the human species, by virtue of species membership alone, has a special
ontological status relative to other animals. Further, this special status not only
is unlike that of any other animal but also is qualitatively better. It is this last
feature in particular that provides the foundation for the claim that it is
eminently moral to assert that the interests of any human animal quite properly
prevail in virtually any nontrivial circumstance over the interests of any other
animal.

Both part III and part IV conclude with observations about problems and
advantages of using “speciesism” as a concept that illuminates features of how
these traditions have come to understand the place of other animals. Note,
however, that even if one does conclude that either of these traditions, or any
other religious or ethical tradition for that matter, has had attitudes illuminated
by the definition of speciesism used in this study, such a conclusion is logically
distinct from the very different claim that humans, either as individual moral
agents or as members of a larger community, do not have special powers and/or
responsibilities. Indeed, as noted in chapter 2, the view of morality implicit in
the critique of alleged speciesism, at least as (p.7) that critique is framed here,
affirms in many respects the claim that humans have special abilities to care
about “others,” whether they be human or otherwise. Further, as noted in both
parts III and IV, one can find approaches within both traditions that clearly do
not fit the description “speciesist.”3

The questions, then, that drive this study are these: (1) What are the prevailing
attitudes about other animals in the Buddhist and Christian traditions? and (2)
How helpful is the concept of speciesism in understanding such attitudes? (p.8)

Notes:
(1.) Aristotle 1984, Politics I, 2, 1253a 9–11, p. 1988.

Page 6 of 7
Introduction

(2.) “Other great apes” is used because humans are, biologically speaking, great
apes, there being “no natural category that includes chimpanzees, gorillas and
orangutans but excludes humans” (Dawkins 1993, 82).

(3.) For example, certain bodhisattva and Christological formulations.

Page 7 of 7
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