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INTRODUCTION TO
NONDESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
INTRODUCTION TO
NONDESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
A Training Guide

Second Edition

PAUL E. MIX

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or
otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright
Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through
payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222
Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at
www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the
Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030,
(201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best
efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the
accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied
warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created
or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies
contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional
where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any
other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or
other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support,
please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974,
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visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Mix, Paul E.
Introduction to nondestructive testing : a training guide / Paul E. Mix.—
2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN-13 978-0-471-42029-3 (cloth)
ISBN-10 0-471-42029-8 (cloth)
1. Nondestructive testing. I. Title.
TA417. 2. M59 2005
620. 1¢127–dc22
2004020584
Printed in the United States of America.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 This book is dedicated to the memory of Robert C. McMaster (1913–1985)
and Friedrich Foerster (1908–1999), who were pioneers in the field of
nondestructive testing and shared a common interest in electromagnetic
testing. As a young engineer working for DuPont, under contract to the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission, the ASNT’s Nondestructive Testing Handbook
and CRC’s Handbook of Chemistry and Physics quickly became
indispensable reference sources.
CONTENTS

Preface xxv

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Digital Technology, 1
1.2 Smaller Is Better, 2
1.3 Medical Marvels, 5
1.4 Improving Shuttle Safety, 6
1.5 Airport Security, 9
1.6 Process Control, 9
1.7 Instrument Synchronization with PXI, 10
1.8 PCI vs. PXI, 11
1.9 60,000-Mile-High Elevator, 11
1.10 Proliferation of Information, 12

2 Acoustic Emissions 15
2.1 Principles and Theory, 15
2.2 Signal Propagation, 16
2.3 Physical Considerations, 16
2.4 The AE Process Chain, 17
2.5 Time Considerations, 18
2.6 AE Parameters, 18
2.7 The AE Measurement Chain, 20
2.7.1 Coupling Agents, 21
2.7.2 AE Sensors, 21
vii
viii CONTENTS

2.7.3 Sensor Attachment, 22

2.7.4 Sensor to Preamplifier Cable, 22
2.7.5 AE Preamplifier, 23
2.7.6 Preamplifier to System Cable, 23
2.8 Vallen AMSY-5 High-Speed AE System, 24
2.8.1 Frequency Filter, 24
2.8.2 The A/D Converter, 25
2.8.3 Feature Extraction, 25
2.8.4 Transient Recorder, 25
2.8.5 Data Buffer, 26
2.8.6 Personal Computer and Software, 26
2.8.7 Sensor Coupling Test (Autocalibration), 26
2.9 Location Calculation and Clustering, 27
2.9.1 Location Calculation Based on Time Differences, 27
2.9.2 Clustering, 29
2.9.3 Sample Analysis Screen, 30
2.9.4 Visualization of Measurement Results, 32
2.10 Advantages and Limitations of AE Testing, 32
2.10.1 Advantages, 32
2.10.2 Advantages of Using Operating Medium (Gas or
Liquid), 32
2.10.3 Advantages Compared to Other NDT Methods, 33
2.10.4 Limitations, 33
2.10.5 Location Errors, 33
2.11 AMSY-5 Main Features, 34
2.12 AE Transducers, 34
2.13 Kistler Piezotron® Acoustic Emission Sensors and Couplers, 35
2.14 AE Sensor Construction, 35
2.15 Summary of AE Sensor Features, 36
2.16 Technical Specifications—8152B2 Sensor, 36
2.17 AE Coupler Features, 36
2.18 Technical Specifications—5125B Coupler, 38
2.18.1 Input, 38
2.18.2 Output, 38
2.19 Acoustic Emission Technology, 38
2.20 AE Applications, 39
2.21 AE Theory, 39
2.22 Applications, 41
2.22.1 Behavior of Materials—Metals, Ceramics, Composites,
Rocks, Concrete, 41
2.22.2 Nondestructive Testing During Manufacturing
Processes, 41
2.22.3 Monitoring Structures, 41
2.22.4 Special Applications, 41
CONTENTS ix

2.23 Advanced Equipment, 42

2.23.1 PCI-2 AE Unit, 42
2.23.2 Key Features, 42
2.23.3 PCI-8, 16-Bit, 8-Channel AE Unit, 43
2.23.4 MicroSAMOSTM, Budget, Compact AE System, 44
2.23.5 DiSP Systems, 45
2.23.6 PCI/DSP-4 Card, 45
2.23.7 Features of PCI/DSP-4 System Board, 47
2.23.8 PCI/DSP-4 Board Operation and Functions, 47
2.23.9 DiSP System Block Diagram, 49
2.23.10 Other Company Products, 50
2.24 Codes, Standards, Practices, Guidelines, and Societies, 50
2.24.1 Sheer Numbers, 52
2.24.2 Terminology, 52
2.24.3 Common Term Definitions, 52
2.24.4 General Principles, 53
2.24.5 Measurement Techniques and Calibration, 53
2.24.6 Areas of Opportunity, 53
2.25 Application and Product-Specific Procedures, 54
2.26 Impact-Echo Method, 54
2.26.1 Background, 54
2.26.2 Finite Element Code, 55
2.26.3 Ball Bearing–Generated Stress, 55
2.26.4 Impact-Echo Transducer Development, 56
2.26.5 Frequency Domain Analysis, 56
2.26.6 Theory of Operations, 56
2.26.7 Propagation of Waves, 57
2.26.8 Impact-Echo Instrumentation, 59
2.26.8.1 System Components, 59
2.26.8.2 Heavy-Duty Carrying Case, 60
2.26.8.3 Computer Recommendations, 60
2.27 Technical Specifications, 61
2.27.1 Hand-Held Transducer Unit, 61
2.27.2 A/D Data Acquisition System, 62
2.27.3 Windows-Based Software, 63
2.28 Applications, 64

3 Electromagnetic Testing Method 65

3.1 Eddy Current Theory, 66
3.1.1 Surface Mounted Coils, 66
3.1.2 Encircling Coils, 71
3.2 Magnetic Flux Leakage Theory, 73
3.3 Eddy Current Sensing Probes, 79
x CONTENTS

3.4 Flux Leakage Sensing Probes, 83

3.4.1 Induction Coils, 83
3.4.2 Hall Effect Sensors, 84
3.5 Factors Affecting Flux Leakage, 87
3.6 Signal-to-Noise Ratio, 88
3.7 Test Frequency, 88
3.8 Magnetization for Flux Leakage Testing, 90
3.9 Coupling, 95
3.10 Eddy Current Techniques, 95
3.11 Instrument Design Considerations, 96
3.12 UniWest US-454 EddyViewTM, 98
3.12.1 E-Lab Model US-450, 101
3.12.2 ETC-2000 Scanner, 102
3.13 Institut Dr. Foerster, 103
3.14 Magnetic Flux Leakage Testing, 106
3.15 Applications, 108
3.15.1 General Eddy Current Applications, 108
3.15.2 Specific Eddy Current Applications, 110
3.15.3 General Flux Leakage Applications, 111
3.15.4 Specific Leakage Flux Applications, 111
3.16 Use of Computers, 112
3.17 Barkhausen Noise/Micromagnetic Testing, 112
3.17.1 Introduction, 112
3.18 Early Applications, 113
3.19 Principles of Measurement, 114
3.20 Equipment, 115
3.21 Technical Specifications, 117
3.22 Calibration and Testing, 117
3.23 Current Applications, 120
3.23.1 Applications in Aircraft/Automotive/Marine
Industries, 120
3.24 General Applications, 121
3.24.1 Pipe/Tubing/Sheet/Plate Manufacturing, 121
3.25 Electromechanical Acoustic Transducers (EMATs), 121
3.25.1 EMATs Advantages Over Piezoelectric
Transducers, 122
3.26 Basic Theory of Operation, 122
3.27 Recent Applications and Developments, 123
3.28 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)
Method, 124
3.29 ACFM Principles of Operation, 125
3.29.1 Bx and Bz Components, 126
3.29.2 Butterfly Plot, 127
3.30 Probe Design, 127
3.31 Applications, 128
CONTENTS xi

4 Laser Testing Methods 131

4.1 Introduction, 131

4.2 Disadvantages, 132
4.3 Main Advantages, 132
4.4 Laser Theory, 132
4.5 Laser Safety, 133
4.6 Laser Classification, 133
4.7 Training, 134
4.8 Profilometry Methods, 134
4.8.1 Stylus Profilometry, 135
4.8.2 Optical Profilometry, 135
4.8.3 White Light Interferometry, 135
4.9 Basic TV Holography/ESPI Interferometry, 136
4.9.1 Single Laser Operation, 136
4.9.2 Camera Operation, 136
4.9.3 Applications, 137
4.9.4 Thermal Stresses, 139
4.9.5 Quantitative Aspects of Mechanical Stress, 140
4.9.6 Qualitative Aspects, 141
4.10 Nanometric Profiling Measurements, 141
4.10.1 Introduction, 141
4.10.2 Autofocus Principle, 142
4.10.3 Specifications, 142
4.10.3.1 Sensor, 142
4.10.3.2 Camera, 142
4.11 Conoscopic Holography, 143
4.11.1 Theory, 143
4.11.2 Specifications, 143
4.12 Confocal Measurement, 144
4.12.1 Specifications, 144
4.12.1.1 Sensor, 144
4.12.1.2 Camera, 144
4.13 NanoSurf Confocal Microscopy, 145
4.13.1 Introduction, 145
4.13.2 Standard Components, 146
4.13.3 Options, 146
4.14 3D Confocal Microscopy, 146
4.14.1 Principle of Operation, 146
4.14.2 Advantages, 146
4.14.3 Specifications, 146
4.15 Nanometric Profiling Applications, 147
4.16 Scanning Laser Profilometry, 147
4.16.1 Optical Principle, 148
4.16.2 Probes, 149
xii CONTENTS

4.16.3 3D Profiler, 149

4.16.4 LP-2000TM Control Unit, 150
4.17 Laser-Scanned Penetrant Inspection (LSPITM-Patent Pending), 152
4.17.1 Applications, 154
4.18 Advanced Techniques, 154
4.19 Natural and External Excitation, 154
4.20 Strain/Stress Measurement, 155
4.20.1 Theory of Operation, 155
4.20.2 Technical Data, 156
4.21 Longer Range 3D Speckle Interferometry System, 157
4.21.1 Technical Data, 158
4.21.2 Hardware and Software Options, 158
4.21.3 Applications for 3D-ESPI Systems, 158
4.21.4 Technical Data, 160
4.22 Nondestructive Testing (NDT), 161
4.23 Shearography, 161
4.23.1 Principle of Laser Shearography, 161
4.23.2 Compact Shearography System, 162
4.23.3 Technical Data, 163
4.24 Portable Shearography System, 164
4.24.1 Technical Data, 164
4.24.2 Other Applications, 165
4.25 Feltmetal Inspection System, 166
4.25.1 Setup and Technique, 166
4.25.2 Technical Data, 166
4.26 Optional Applications, 168
4.27 Optical Inspection Systems, 168
4.27.1 ARAMIS, 168
4.27.2 Industry-Specific Applications, 170
4.27.3 Measuring Procedure, 170
4.27.4 Measurement Results, 170
4.27.5 Measurement Advantages, 170
4.27.6 Comparison of ESPI and 3D Image Correlation, 171
4.27.7 ARAMIS HR Specifications, 172
4.28 ARGUS, 172
4.29 TRITOP, 174
4.29.1 Photogrammetric Offline System, 174
4.29.2 Measurable Object Size, 174
4.29.3 Digital Photogrammetry Functionality, 174
4.30 System Advantages, 175
4.31 Portable Measuring System Technique, 175
4.32 Dynamic TRITOP, 177
4.33 Other Laser Methods, 177
4.33.1 Measurement of Hot Spots in Metal/Semiconductor
Field-Effect Transistors, 177
CONTENTS xiii

5 Leak Testing Methods 179

5.1 Introduction, 179

5.2 Fundamentals, 180
5.3 Ultrasonic Leak Testing, 180
5.3.1 Ultrasonic Leak Detectors, 180
5.4 Bubble Leak Testing, 183
5.5 Dye Penetrant Leak Testing, 183
5.6 Pressure Change Leak Testing, 183
5.7 Helium Mass Spectrometer Leak Testing, 184
5.8 Mass Spectrometer Leak Detector, 184
5.9 MSLD Subsystems, 184
5.9.1 Spectrometer Tube, 185
5.9.2 Vacuum Systems, 186
5.10 Vacuum System Configurations, 186
5.10.1 Conventional (Direct) Flow, 186
5.10.2 Contraflow (Reverse) Flow, 187
5.10.3 Midstage Flow, 188
5.10.4 Multiple Flow, 188
5.11 Electronics, 189
5.11.1 I/O Functions, 190
5.12 Methods of Leak Detection, 190
5.13 Vacuum Testing Method (Outside-In), 191
5.13.1 Locating Leaks, 191
5.13.2 Measuring Leaks, 192
5.14 Pressure Test Method (Inside-Out), 192
5.14.1 Locating Leaks, 192
5.14.2 Measuring Leaks, 193
5.15 Accumulation Testing Method, 194
5.16 Vacuum Systems, 194
5.17 Pressurized Systems, 195
5.18 MSLD Configurations, 196
5.18.1 “Wet” or “Dry” Pumps, 196
5.18.2 Cabinet or Workstation Models, 196
5.18.3 Portable Units, 197
5.18.4 Component or Integratable Units, 197
5.19 Calibration, 197
5.19.1 Calibrated Leaks, 198
5.20 Radioisotope Tracer Leak Testing, 198
5.21 Bubble Leak Testing, 199
5.21.1 Leak Detector Solution, 199
5.21.2 Vacuum Box Bubble Tracer Leak Testing, 199
5.21.3 Pressure Bubble Leak Testing, 200
5.21.4 Indications, 201
5.22 Pressure Change Leak Testing, 202
xiv CONTENTS

5.22.1 Principles, 202

5.22.2 Terminology, 202
5.22.3 Equipment, 203
5.22.4 Pressurizing Gases, 204
5.23 Pressure Change Measurement Testing, 205
5.23.1 Reference System Technique, 207
5.24 Leakage Rate and Flow Measurement Testing, 207
5.25 Nuclear Reactor Systems, 208
5.26 Halogen Diode Leak Testing, 209
5.26.1 Principles, 209
5.26.2 Terminology, 210
5.26.3 Gases and Equipment, 210
5.26.4 Calibration, 210
5.27 “Sniffer” Techniques, 212
5.27.1 Equipment Operation and Servicing, 212
5.27.2 Normal Operation, 212
5.28 VIC MSLD Leak Detectors, 213
5.29 MSLD Subsystems, 216
5.29.1 Spectrometer Tube, 217
5.29.2 Vacuum System, 218
5.30 Operating Sequence (MS-40 and MS-40 Dry), 219
5.31 Calibration Sequence (MS-40 and MS-40 Dry), 220

6 Liquid Penetrant Tests 221

6.1 Introduction, 221
6.2 Processing, 222
6.3 Test Methods, 224
6.3.1 Water Washable Fluorescent Penetrant Process, 224
6.3.2 Post-Emulsification Fluorescent Process, 226
6.3.3 Reverse Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Process, 227
6.3.4 Visible Dye Penetrant Process, 227
6.3.5 Water Emulsifiable Visible Dye Penetrant
Process, 228
6.3.6 Water Washable Visible Dye Penetrant Process, 228
6.3.7 Post-Emulsifiable Visible Dye Penetrant Process, 229
6.3.8 Solvent Clean Visible Dye Penetrant Process, 229
6.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Methods, 230
6.5 Test Equipment, 231
6.6 Penetrant Materials, 236
6.7 System Comparisons, 238
6.8 Applications, 239
6.9 Measurement of UV and Visible Light, 242
6.10 Automatic and Semiautomatic Penetrant Testing
Methods, 245
CONTENTS xv

7 Magnetic Particle Testing 247

7.1 Magnetic Principles, 247
7.2 Magnets and Magnetic Fields, 249
7.3 Discontinuities and Defects, 252
7.4 Induced Magnetic Fields, 254
7.5 Circular and Longitudinal Fields, 257
7.6 Selection of Magnetizing Method, 262
7.7 Commercial Equipment, 263
7.8 Wet and Dry Particle Inspection, 264
7.9 MT Improvements, 267
7.9.1 Remote Magnetic Particle Inspection, 269
7.9.2 Probe Power, 269
7.9.3 Lightweight UV Lamps, 270
7.9.4 Dual Light (UV/Visible and Visible) Particle
Indications, 270
7.10 Applications, 270
7.11 Residual Fields and Demagnetization, 273
7.12 Magnetic Flux Strips, 275
7.13 Hall Effect Gaussmeter, 276
7.14 The Hysteresis Curve, 277
7.15 Selection of Equipment, 280
7.16 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Method, 285
7.17 Magnetic Rubber Inspection, 285
7.17.1 Introduction, 285
7.17.2 Inspection Principles, 285
7.17.3 Advantages of MRI, 286
7.17.4 Formulations, 287
7.18 Underwater MRI, 288
7.18.1 Technique, 288
7.18.2 Disadvantages, 288
7.19 Magnetic Penetrameters, 289
7.20 Automatic and Semiautomatic Inspection, 289
7.21 Magwerks Integrated System Tracking Technology, 290
7.21.1 Basic Operation, 290
7.21.1.1 Basic Operation—Automatic Mode, 291
7.21.1.2 Applications, 295
7.22 Discontinuities and Their Appearances, 296
7.23 Nonrelevant Indications, 297

8 Neutron Radiographic Testing 301

8.1 Introduction, 301
8.2 Physical Principles, 303
8.3 Neutron Radiation Sources, 304
xvi CONTENTS

8.4 Neutron Activation Analysis, 304

8.5 Ward Center TRIGA Reactor, 307
8.6 Radiation Hazards and Personal Protection, 309
8.7 Radiation Detection Imaging, 311
8.7.1 Conversion Screens, 312
8.7.2 Indirect Transfer Method, 312
8.7.3 Direct Transfer Method, 312
8.7.4 Fluorescent Screens, 313
8.8 Electronic Imaging, 313
8.9 Nonimaging Detectors, 313
8.10 Neutron Radiographic Process, 313
8.11 Interpretation of Results, 315
8.12 Other Neutron Source Applications, 316
8.13 Neutron Level Gauges, 320
8.14 Californium-252 Sources, 321
8.15 Neutron Radioscopic Systems, 321
8.15.1 Introduction, 321
8.15.2 Neutron Imaging System Components, 322
8.15.3 Online Inspection Systems, 323
8.15.4 Characteristics of Aluminum Corrosion, 323
8.15.5 Thermal Neutron Inspection System Requirements, 324
8.15.6 Conclusions, 324

9 Radiographic Testing Method 325

9.1 Industrial Radiography, 325
9.1.1 Personnel Monitoring, 325
9.1.2 Selected Definitions, 326
9.1.3 Survey Instruments, 327
9.1.4 Leak Testing of Sealed Sources, 329
9.1.5 Survey Reports, 331
9.2 Work Practices, 331
9.3 Time—Distance—Shielding—Containment, 332
9.4 Regulatory Requirements, 335
9.5 Exposure Devices, 335
9.6 State and Federal Regulations, 337
9.7 Basic Radiographic Physics, 338
9.7.1 Introduction—Isotope Production, 338
9.8 Fundamental Properties of Matter, 339
9.9 Radioactive Materials, 340
9.9.1 Stability and Decay, 341
9.9.2 Activity, 341
9.9.3 Half-Life, 342
9.10 Types of Radiation, 343
9.11 Interaction of Radiation with Matter, 346
CONTENTS xvii

9.12 Biological Effects, 348

9.13 Radiation Detection, 352
9.13.1 Survey Instruments, 354
9.14 Radiation Sources, 356
9.14.1 Isotope Sources, 356
9.15 Portable Linear Accelerators, 359
9.16 Special Radiographic Techniques, 360
9.17 Standard Radiographic Techniques, 361
9.17.1 Introduction, 361
9.17.2 Basic Principles, 363
9.17.3 Screens, 364
9.17.4 Film Composition, 365
9.18 The Radiograph, 365
9.18.1 Image Quality, 370
9.18.2 Film Handling, Loading, and Processing, 374
9.18.3 High-Intensity Illuminators, 376
9.19 Fluoroscopy Techniques, 377
9.20 Flat Panel Digital Imaging Systems, 378
9.21 Flat Panel Systems vs. Fuji Dynamix CR Imaging System, 379
9.21.1 Resolution, 379
9.21.2 Ghost Images, 380
9.21.3 Image Lag, 380
9.21.4 Dark Current Noise, 381
9.21.5 Portability, 381
9.21.6 Temperature Sensitivity, 381
9.21.7 Flexibility, 381
9.21.8 Fragility, 381
9.21.9 Advantages, 381
9.22 Industrial Computed Tomography, 382
9.22.1 Scan Procedure, 382
9.22.2 Applications of Industrial Computed Tomography, 383
9.22.3 CT System Components, 384
9.23 Automatic Defect Recognition, 387
9.23.1 Imaging Improvements, 387
9.23.2 LDA Design and Operation, 389
9.23.3 ADR Techniques, 389
9.23.4 Neural Network Artificial Intelligence (AI), 390
9.23.5 Rule Base Using Specific Algorithms, 392
9.23.5.1 Operating Sequence, 392
9.23.6 ADR Advances of a PC Platform Over Proprietary
Hardware, 392
9.23.7 ADR Techniques, 392
9.23.8 SADR, 392
9.23.9 Conclusions, 393
9.24 The Digitome® Process, 393
xviii CONTENTS

9.24.1 Examination Concept, 394

9.24.2 Digital Flat Panel Detector, 395
9.24.3 Image Acquisition, 396
9.24.4 Flaw Location and Measurement, 396
9.24.5 Other Applications, 396
9.25 Manufacturing Processes and Discontinuities, 397
9.26 Other Isotope Applications, 397
9.26.1 Electron Capture Detection, 397
9.26.2 Moisture Gauging, 397
9.26.3 Bone Density, 400
9.26.4 Gamma and Beta Thickness Gauging, 401
9.26.5 Gamma and Beta Backscatter Thickness Gauging, 401
9.26.6 Gamma Level Gauging, 402
9.26.7 Gamma Density Measurement, 402
9.26.8 Point Level Switch, 404
9.26.8.1 Features and Benefits, 405
9.26.9 Oil Well Logging, 405

10 Thermal/Infrared Testing Method 407

10.1 Basic Modes of Heat Transfer, 407
10.2 The Nature of Heat Flow, 408
10.2.1 Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions, 408
10.2.1.1 Exothermic Reactions, 408
10.2.1.2 Endothermic Reactions, 409
10.3 Temperature Measurement, 409
10.4 Common Temperature Measurements, 410
10.4.1 Melting Point Indicators, 410
10.5 Color Change Thermometry, 411
10.5.1 Irreversible Color Change Indicators, 411
10.5.2 Thermochromic Liquid Crystal Indicators, 413
10.5.3 Liquid in Glass Thermometers, 415
10.6 Temperature Sensors with External Readouts, 416
10.6.1 Thermocouple Sensors, 416
10.6.2 Special Thermocouple Products, 418
10.6.3 Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs), 418
10.6.3.1 RTD Sensing Elements and Typical
Temperature Ranges, 418
10.6.4 Resistance Temperature Elements (RTEs), 420
10.7 Infrared Imaging Energy, 420
10.8 Heat and Light Concepts, 421
10.9 Pyrometers, 422
10.9.1 Error Correction, 422
10.9.2 Principles of Operation, 423
10.9.2.1 Narrow-Band Optical Pyrometers, 423
10.9.2.2 Broad-Band Optical Pyrometers, 424
CONTENTS xix

10.9.3 Design and Operations of Optical Pyrometers, 426

10.9.4 Applications for Broad-Band Optical Pyrometers, 427
10.9.5 Installation of Optical Pyrometers, 427
10.10 Infrared Imaging Systems, 427
10.10.1 Blackbody Calibration Sources, 427
10.11 Spacial Resolution Concepts, 428
10.11.1 FOV, IFOV, MIFOV, and GIFOV, 428
10.11.2 Angular Resolving Power, 428
10.11.3 Error Potential in Radiant Measurements, 429
10.12 Infrared Testing Method, 429
10.12.1 Preventive and Predictive Maintenance Programs, 429
10.12.2 Electrical PdM Applications, 429
10.12.3 Mechanical PdM Applications, 430
10.13 High-Performance Thermal Imager for Predictive
Maintenance, 430
10.13.1 Predictive Maintenance Program, 431
10.13.2 Specifications, 432
10.13.2.1 Thermal, 432
10.13.2.2 Controls, 433
10.13.2.3 Optional Features, 433
10.13.2.4 Other, 433
10.14 High-Performance Radiometric IR System, 433
10.14.1 Introduction, 433
10.14.2 Applications, 434
10.14.3 Theory of Operation, 434
10.14.4 Operating Technique, 436
10.14.5 Typical Specifications, 438
10.15 Mikron Instrument Company, Inc., 439
10.16 Mikron 7200V Thermal Imager and Visible Light Camera, 440
10.16.1 General Features, 440
10.16.2 Technical Data, 440
10.16.2.1 Performance, 440
10.16.2.2 Presentation, 441
10.16.2.3 Measurement, 441
10.16.2.4 Interface, 442
10.17 High-Speed IR Line Cameras, 442
10.17.1 General Information—MikroLine Series 2128, 442
10.17.2 High-Speed Temperature Measurement of Tires, 442
10.17.2.1 Camera Specifications, 443
10.18 Other Thermal Testing Methods, 444
10.18.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer, 444
10.18.1.1 DLATGS Pyroelectric Detectors, 447
10.18.1.2 FTIR Evaluation of Hard Disk Fluororesin
Coating, 447
10.18.1.3 Measurement of Film Thickness on a Silicon
Wafer, 448
xx CONTENTS

10.18.2 Advanced Mercury Analyzer, 448

10.18.2.1 Introduction, 448
10.18.2.2 Theory of Operation, 449
10.18.2.3 Software, 450
10.18.3 Identification of Materials, 450
10.18.3.1 Thermoelectric Alloy Sorting, 450
10.18.3.2 Applications, 453
10.18.4 Advantages and Disadvantages, 454
10.18.4.1 Advantages, 454
10.18.4.2 Disadvantages, 456

11 Ultrasonic Testing 457

11.1 Introduction, 457
11.2 Definition of Acoustic Parameters of a
Transducer, 458
11.3 Noncontacting Ultrasonic Testing, 458
11.3.1 NCU Transducers, 460
11.3.2 Instant Picture Analysis System, 463
11.3.3 Limitations, 465
11.3.4 Bioterrorism, 466
11.4 Ultrasonic Pulsers/Receivers, 466
11.5 Multilayer Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge, 470
11.6 Conventional Ultrasound, 471
11.6.1 Flaw Detection, 473
11.6.2 Frequency, 474
11.6.3 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation, 476
11.6.4 Acoustic Impedance, 477
11.6.5 Reflection and Refraction, 478
11.6.6 Diffraction, Dispersion, and Attenuation, 481
11.6.7 Fresnel and Fraunhofer Fields, 482
11.6.8 Generation of Ultrasonic Waves, 483
11.6.9 Search Unit Construction, 484
11.6.10 Test Methods, 489
11.7 Ultrasonic Testing Equipment, 498
11.7.1 Equipment Operation, 507
11.7.2 Flaw Transducers, 509
11.7.2.1 Instrument Features, 509
11.7.2.2 Ultrasonic Specifications, 510
11.7.2.3 Physical Description and Power
Supply, 510
11.7.3 Testing Procedures, 512
11.7.3.1 Variables Affecting Results, 517
11.8 Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD), 519
CONTENTS xxi

12 Vibration Analysis Method 521

12.1 Introduction, 521

12.2 Principles/Theory, 522
12.2.1 Modes of Vibration, 522
12.2.2 Resonance, 523
12.2.3 Degrees of Freedom, 524
12.3 Sources of Vibration, 524
12.4 Noise Analysis, 525
12.5 Stress Analysis, 525
12.6 Modal Analysis, 526
12.7 Vibration Analysis/Troubleshooting, 527
12.7.1 Rotating Equipment Analysis, 527
12.7.2 Order Analysis, 527
12.8 Transfer Functions, 528
12.9 Predictive Maintenance, 528
12.10 Failure Analysis, 529
12.11 Impact Testing and Frequency Response, 529
12.12 Pass and Fail Testing, 530
12.13 Correction Methods, 530
12.13.1 Alignment and Balance, 530
12.13.2 Beat Frequency, 530
12.13.3 Vibration Damping, 532
12.13.4 Dynamic Absorber/Increasing Mass, 534
12.13.5 Looseness/Nonlinear Mechanical Systems, 536
12.13.6 Isolation Treatments, 536
12.13.7 Speed Change, 540
12.13.8 Stiffening, 540
12.14 Machine Diagnosis, 541
12.15 Sensors, 543
12.15.1 Strain Gauges, 543
12.15.2 Accelerometers, 544
12.15.3 Velocity Sensors, 545
12.15.4 Displacement Sensors, 545
12.16 Rolling Element Bearing Failures, 547
12.17 Bearing Vibration/Noise, 548
12.18 Blowers and Fans, 550
12.19 Vibrotest 60 Version 4, 550
12.20 Signal Conditioning, 555
12.20.1 Acoustic Filters, 555
12.21 Equipment Response to Environmental Factors, 555
12.21.1 Temperature/Humidity, 555
12.22 Data Presentation, 555
12.22.1 Acceleration, Velocity, and Displacement, 555
12.22.2 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)/Time Waveform, 556
xxii CONTENTS

12.22.3 Cepstrum Analysis, 557

12.22.4 Nyquist Frequency/Plot, 557
12.22.5 Orbit, Lissajous, X-Y, and Hysteresis Plots, 559
12.23 Online Monitoring, 560
12.23.1 Trend Analysis, 560
12.24 Portable Noise and Vibration Analysis System, 560
12.24.1 Typical Applications, 562
12.24.2 System Requirements, 562
12.25 Laser Methods, 562
12.25.1 Theory of Operation, 563
12.25.2 Applications, 565
12.25.3 Specifications, 566
12.26 TEC’s Aviation Products, 567
12.26.1 Analyzer Plus Model 1700, 567
12.26.1.1 Flexible System, 568
12.26.1.2 User Friendly, 568
12.26.1.3 Expandability, 568
12.26.1.4 Quality Commitment, 568
12.26.1.5 Engine Fan Balancing Application, 569
12.26.1.6 Technical Specifications, 569
12.26.2 ProBalancer Analyzer 2020, 570
12.26.2.1 Software Features, 571
12.26.2.2 Technical Specifications, 572
12.26.3 Viper 4040, 572
12.26.3.1 Automated Track and Balancing, 572
12.26.3.2 Vibration Analysis, 574
12.26.3.3 Acoustic Analysis, 574
12.26.3.4 Technical Specifications, 574

13 Visual and Optical Testing 575

13.1 Fundamentals, 575
13.2 Principles and Theory of Visual Testing, 576
13.3 Selection of Correct Visual Technique, 576
13.4 Equipment, 578
13.4.1 Borescopes, 578
13.4.2 Jet Engine Inspection, 581
13.4.3 Nuclear Applications, 582
13.4.4 Other Applications, 584
13.5 Fiberscopes and Videoscopes, 584
13.5.1 Applications, 585
13.6 SnakeEyeTM Diagnostic Tool, 587
13.7 Industrial Videoscopes, 589
13.7.1 Equipment and Features, 589
13.7.2 Instrument Setup, 590
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