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OPTIONS FOR WASTEWATER
MANAGEMENT IN HARARE,
ZIMBABWE
Options for Wastewater Management
in Harare, Zimbabwe
DISSERTATION
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of
the Academic Board of Wageningen University and
the Academic Board of the UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education
for the Degree of DOCTOR
to be defended in public
on Tuesday, 18 May 2004 at 15:00 h in Delft, The Netherlands
by
INNOCENT NHAPI
born in Chegutu District, Zimbabwe
Promoter: Prof. Dr. H.J.Gijzen
Professor of Environmental Biotechnology
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, The
Netherlands
Co-promoter: Dr. M.A.Siebel, P.E.
Associate Professor in Environmental Biotechnology
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, The
Netherlands
Awarding Prof. Dr. D.Huisingh
Committee: University of Tennessee, United States of America
Prof. Dr. ir. C.J.N.Buisman
Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Prof. Dr. P.Marjanovic
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, The
Netherlands
Prof. Dr. B.E.Marshall
University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
Prof. Dr. ir. H.H.G.Savenije
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, The
Netherlands
 Copyright © 2004 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the
publisher.
Although all care is taken to ensure the integrity and quality of this publication and the
information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the authors for any damage
to property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information
contained herein.
Published by A.A.Balkema Publishers, a member of Taylor & Francis Group plc.
mailto:www.balkema.nlandwww.tandf.co.uk
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of
thousands of eBooks please go to http://www.ebookstore.tandf.co.uk/.

ISBN 0-203-02711-6 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN - (Adobe e-Reader Format)

ISBN 90 5809 697 1 (Print Edition) (Taylor & Francis Group)
ISBN 90 5804 044 2 (Print Edition) (Wageningen University)
To my father, who died in the final stages of the preparation of this thesis on 24/06/03:
Paidamoyo
 CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgements viii
Abstract ix

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Inventory of Existing Water Management Practices in 23
Harare, Zimbabwe
Chapter 3 Impact of Urbanisation on Water Quality of Lake 40
Chivero, Zimbabwe
Chapter 4 A Strategic Framework for Managing Wastewater: A 57
Case Study of Harare, Zimbabwe
Chapter 5 Options for Onsite Management of Wastewater in 74
Harare, Zimbabwe
Chapter 6 Options for Decentralised Management of Wastewater 94
in Harare, Zimbabwe
Chapter 7 Centralised Management of Wastewater in Harare, 111
Zimbabwe: Current Practice and Future Options
Chapter 8 Effluent Polishing via Pasture Irrigation in Harare, 128
Zimbabwe
Chapter 9 Proposal for the Sustainable Management of 142
Wastewater in Harare, Zimbabwe
Summary (in English) 160
Summary (in Dutch) 165
Curriculum Vitae 171
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is very grateful to all those who have generously contributed their time in the
production of this thesis. In particular, I feel greatly indebted to my Promoter, Professor
H.J. Gijzen of UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, together with my Mentor,
Assoc. Professor M.A.Siebel, for their guidance, criticisms and valued advice. Special
thanks also to Dr. Pieter van der Zaag and Eng. E.Kaseke for their administrative and
supporting roles. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Dr G.G.O’loughlin of
Sydney, Australia, for encouragement, and University of Zimbabwe staff from various
departments, especially Professors B.E.Marshall and M.F.Zaranyika, and the laboratory
staff of the Civil Engineering Department. Part of the work that was carried out and
published in conjunction with MSc students—Eng. Misery Mawere and Mrs. Sithabile
Tirivarombo—is gratefully acknowledged. Also of special mention is the assistance I
received from Eng. Zvikomborero Hoko, Dr. Jerry Ndamba, and Mr. Job Dalu, which
resulted in joint publications with each of them.
I would like to acknowledge financial support that made my study possible: SAIL
Project (Netherlands Government), SIDA/SAREC fund at the University of Zimbabwe,
and the Water Research Fund for Southern Africa. I would also like to pay special tribute
to all professionals who have contributed to a large body of knowledge in urban
wastewater management. The use of their material is acknowledged with thanks. Last,
but certainly not least, I would also like to extend my sincere appreciation to my wife and
family members for their patience and endurance throughout my studies.
 ABSTRACT

The capital city of Zimbabwe, Harare, has adopted an urban water cycle that is geared
towards high level service provision. Water supply and sewerage/sanitation coverage
amounts to over 98%, which makes Harare one of the cities in Africa with the highest
coverage. The city’s high volume of water abstraction from its main water resource, Lake
Chivero, however, can no longer be sustained. The lake has been seriously polluted by
large volumes of (partially) treated effluents from wastewater treatment plants in Harare
and the neighbouring town of Chitungwiza. It also receives pollution from agricultural,
solid waste, industrial, and natural sources. Most of the wastewater treatment plants in the
lake’s catchment are overloaded and they experience frequent breakdowns. This situation
has been worsened by repeated years of drought, resulting In the accumulation of
nitrogen and phosphorous in the lake. The negative impacts of this have been reflected in
periodic fish kills, proliferation of algae and water hyacinth, and the reduction in
biological diversity. Other related problems are difficulties in potable water treatment and
clogging of irrigation pipes.
There is now an urgent need to control pollution loads and to remove contaminants
that have accumulated in Lake Chivero over many years. A great deal could be achieved
through rational management of the urban water system and the associated nutrient cycle.
This should be based on an integrated approach that includes reduction of water
consumption, and the wise use of water through pollution prevention/reduction measures.
On the water supply side, available options include reduction of water losses (now
at±30%), water-saving installations (in households, commerce, and industry), direct reuse
(e.g., greywater), and alternative water resources (e.g., rainwater harvesting and
groundwater). On the wastewater side, options available include onsite, decentralised and
centralised treatment plus reuse.
The general objectives of this research were to assess the contribution of wastewater
from Harare to the nitrogen and phosphorous inflows into Lake Chivero and, based on
this assessment, to formulate feasible sanitary engineering solutions to the problem of
excessive nutrient inflows into the lake. The research specifically targeted nutrients
because these are the major problem parameters. BOD is largely taken care of via current
wastewater treatment and river self-purification processes. The general strategy was to
intervene at various levels; i.e., property, decentralised and centralised levels, with
various options aimed at reducing water use and limiting wastewater production and
reusing or recycling water and nutrients. This strategy would reduce nitrogen and
phosphorous flows to the lake, whilst increasing water availability.
An extensive water quality and quantity monitoring study in the Chivero catchment
was carried out from June 2000 to December 2001 to assess the current situation in terms
of water use, treatment and reuse levels, and flow balances. In addition, current
contributions of wastewater discharges to nutrient flows in the rivers and Lake Chivero
were assessed. Intervention strategies were developed based on an approach, referred to
as the “3-Step Strategic Approach” to wastewater management. The steps include: 1)
pollution prevention/reduction at source, 2) treatment in the direction of reuse, and 3)
disposal with stimulation of self-purification capacity of the receiving water body. The
three steps should be considered in this chronological order. Options considered include
source control by the users (residents, industries, etc) using various strategies such as
greywater separation and reuse, implementation of toilets with urine separation, and other
ecological methods of wastewater management. Other possible options are invoking
better behaviour through fees and information, and user responsibility through education,
legislative changes and stricter controls over industry. Options for boosting the self-
purification capacity of water bodies include introducing wetlands into the river system
via natural overflow, land irrigation, reducing retention time in the lake, etc. Flexible and
differential solutions were developed for each landuse category (commercial, industrial
and residential).
The results of this study confirmed that wastewater plays a major role in the pollution
of Lake Chivero. Wastewater contributed over 50% of the annual water flows in the
major inflow rivers of Marimba and Mukuvisi. Water quality was found to be an urgent
problem that requires immediate action whilst water scarcity was considered a medium-
term problem. The river water quality for points upstream and downstream of wastewater
discharge points were far above the 0.03 mg/l TP required for avoiding excessive plant
growth in rivers. The lake nutrient concentrations were 2.0+1.3 mg/l TN and 0.6+3 mg/l
TP (±standard deviation), reflecting a hypertrophic status. Nearly 70% of the annual
phosphorus inflows were retained within the lake, which had a hydraulic retention time of
1.6+1.1 years based on rainfall years 1981/2 to 2000/1. However, for the monitoring
period, the hydraulic retention time reduced to 0.4 years due to the heavy rains received
in that period. Besides the need to substantially reduce nutrient inflows in Lake Chivero,
adequate water inflows are also essential for the flushing out of nutrients from the lake,
especially phosphorus. The continued accumulation of phosphorus in the lake sediments
leads to an internal phosphorus cycle, further complicating remedial measures.
The effective reduction of nutrient inflows into Lake Chivero hinges on solutions
related to wastewater management. It is in this context that the “3-Step Strategic
Approach” was applied, focusing on wastewater treatment and reuse options at onsite,
decentralised, and centralised levels. An aggregation of these options led to the
development of short-term, medium-term, and long-term solutions. It was estimated that
significant improvements in the lake water quality (to about 0.4 mg/l TN and 0.07 mg/l
TP in the medium-term) could be achieved by applying the measures suggested in this
dissertation. In addition, the treatment of part of the effluent to tertiary standard and
subsequent discharge into Lake Chivero could also reduce the lake hydraulic retention
time to below 0.5 years, thereby enhancing the flushing out of nutrients. It was concluded
that both water quality and quantity problems in the Chivero catchment could be
significantly reduced via improvements in wastewater management in combination with
the control of other point and non-point sources of pollution.
 Chapter 1
Introduction
Parts of this Chapter were submitted as:
Nhapi, I. and Gijzen, H.J. (2004) Wastewater Management in Zimbabwe in the
Context of Sustainability, paper accepted for publication in the Water Policy Journal,
January 2004.

Introduction

Developments in Water Management

There is now almost universal acceptance of the basic principle that water resources need
to be managed in an integrated manner (ICWE, 1992; Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 2000).
The relationship between water quality, safe water supply, appropriate sanitation,
pollution prevention/control, and the need to feed increasing populations is particularly
important in this era of frequent droughts, floods and disease outbreaks. Drought
forecasting and mitigation, water security assessment, and water demand management are
areas that are receiving attention more than before at both local and international
conferences. Related areas are water end-use efficiency, system efficiency, rainwater
harvesting, storage and recharge innovations, and reuse strategies. In the 21st century, the
philosophy behind water management is most likely going to be driven by the Dublin
Principles, the World Water Vision, and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG)
(Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 2000; United Nations, 2003). The MDG include
commitments to halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of people who are unable to
reach or afford safe drinking water and those who do not have access to basic sanitation.
Much of the focus will be on efficient drinking water supply, low-cost wastewater
management, and effective water quality management as the key to improved water
resources management, linking the three to water availability and protein production.

The Dublin Principles

In early 1992 an International Conference on Water and the Environment (ICWE) held in
Dublin, Ireland, adopted what is now called the Dublin Principles. These were presented
to the world leaders at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. The Dublin Conference proposed concerted
action to reverse over-consumption, pollution, and rising threats from drought and floods.
The Dublin Statement recognised freshwater as a finite and vulnerable resource, essential
to sustain life, development and the environment. The effective management of water
resources demands a holistic approach, linking social and economic development with
the protection of natural ecosystems. It also recognised that water has an economic value
 Options for wastewater management in harare, zimbabwe 2

in all its competing uses and therefore should be recognised as an economic good. Past
failure to recognise the economic value of water has led to wasteful and environmentally
damaging uses of water (ICWE, 1992).
The potential implications of these recommendations on water conservation (industry,
domestic and agriculture) and reuse are very important. Recycling could reduce water
consumption of many industries with a potential benefit of reduced pollution. The
application of the “polluter pays” principle and realistic water pricing would encourage
conservation and reuse. Better water management could significantly increase
agriculture, industry and domestic water supplies, significantly defer Investment in costly
new water resource development and wastewater treatment facilities, and have an
enormous impact on the sustainability of future supplies.

World Water Vision

In recognition of the unsustainable way water has been managed by society so far, the
World Water Council developed the World Water Vision. The idea to develop a Long
Term Vision for Water, Life and Environment in the 21st Century—or in short, the World
Water Vision—was introduced during the first World Water Forum in Marakech,
Morocco, in 1997. The process was co-ordinated by the World Water Council and the
results were presented during the second World Water Forum in March 2000 in The
Hague (Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 2000). There was no consensus on important
conclusions as two groups of opinion, referred to as the globalisation and the anti-
globalisation groups, emerged from the conference. However, the two groups supported
the Vision21 document, the ‘Water for People’ component, in part, because this
document was prepared in a clear bottom-up participatory process. The perception was
that the anti-globalisation camp favoured human rights, pluralism and democratic
accountability, while those in favour of globalisation supported privatisation, economic
valuation of water and the power of the global market.

Vision21
Vision21 represents the ‘Water for People’ component in the overall World Water
Vision. It is aimed at achieving by 2025 a world in which each person knows the
importance of hygiene, and enjoys safe and adequate water and sanitation services. To
achieve these ambitious goals, it will be necessary to deal with the shortcomings of the
current concept of urban water management (too much, too high or too low quality, too
little reuse). The realisation of Vision21 will only be possible through the re-formulation
of the current practices and the development of new concepts and approaches for
sustainable urban water management. These include the establishment of effective water
institutions, water demand management, the development of low water usage facilities
and low cost sanitation systems, rainwater harvesting, and the extensive use of resource
recovery and re-use approaches for wastewater. A holistic approach is therefore required
in which wastewater is seen as a resource, and its management is linked to that of water
resources and of nutrients. In fact, resource recovery and re-use approaches could, in
addition to water savings, create financial incentives that could be used to cover part of
the cost of wastewater treatment.
 Introduction 3

The above considerations have been further developed by the Environmental

Sanitation Group of the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC)
and have led to the so called ‘Household Centred Approach’ (King, 2000). This and other
emerging approaches emphasize the household as the target unit for waste containment
methods such as cleaner production techniques, and treatment geared to resource
recovery and reuse (Gijzen, 2001). In addition to this, there is a need to analyse the water
and nutrient cycles and develop appropriate intervention measures at each stage of the
cycles.

Urban water management

Urban water management includes abstraction, treatment, storage, transmission and

distribution to consumers and the subsequent collection and processing of the generated
wastewater. It is now realised that urban wastewater is a vital component of water
resources and nutrient management, and that it is crucial for sustainability in the water
sector. Here, sustainability amounts to maintaining the abundance and quality of water
resources to sustain ecosystems and support future human needs while also meeting
current household and commercial/industrial water requirements. An emerging new
school of thought believes that the traditional or conventional sanitation approach is very
expensive and inefficient in terms of money, resources and energy. Its proponents are
calling for radical changes, focusing more on pollution prevention, resource recovery
(nutrients, biogas, and water) and reuse (Frijns and Jansen, 1996; Parr, 1996; Jeffrey et
al., 1997; Otterpohl et al., 1997; Gijzen, 1998; King, 2000).
According to these authors, sustainable solutions could only be found by considering:
i. the entire urban water cycle (not focusing just on components);
ii. the way in which other material cycles interact with the urban water cycle (N,P,…);
iii. that these cycles are closed via shorter loops (e.g. wastewater to be treated to level of
water resource before discharge, ammonia nitrogen to be reused in stead of
denitrified).

Problems of the conventional wastewater management approach

A typical traditional wastewater management approach uses “end-of-pipe” and
centralised treatment technologies with river discharge of effluent (Fig 1.1). This
approach focuses on solving short-term problems instead of avoiding them by using
appropriate approaches. It results in unrestricted usage of water, fossil nutrients and
energy, thereby suppressing the development of systems with source control. In the
current approach, which originates from the 19th century (Gijzen, 1998), water from a
nearby water resource is treated to drinking water quality and subsequently used only
once for a wide range of uses, many of these not requiring such high quality.
Subsequently, and often without treatment, wastewater is discharged back to the same
water resource. The effective treatment of wastewater worldwide is very low (estimates
suggest below 10% (WHO, 2000)) because of the prohibitive costs of current sewerage
and centralised treatment systems. Most of these systems also do not provide a complete
solution, as only COD and TSS are targeted, while nutrients and pathogens are usually
 Options for wastewater management in harare, zimbabwe 4

discharged without any form of treatment. As a result, eutrophication and frequent

outbreaks of water borne disease are reported worldwide (UNEP, 2000).

Figure 1.1: Linear mass fluxes in the

traditional urban sanitation approach
(Source: Otterpohl et al., 1998)
Some disadvantages of this “mix, dilute, and disperse” conventional sewerage system
are: health problems in receiving downstream waters; trace contaminants of dissolved
matter; nutrient losses to the atmosphere and the seas; and ignoring responsibilities for
maintaining fertile topsoil (Otterpohl et al., 1998). Other problems include high energy
demand for the degradation of organic and nitrogen compounds; mixing of different
wastewater qualities which reduces reuse opportunities; high failure risk; mobilisation of
metals; reduced production of humus (carbon-storing); high operation and rehabilitation
costs, and negatively affecting the water quality of downstream water users.
The traditional approach to wastewater management mainly focuses on the control of
waterborne diseases and preventing the degradation of the urban environment and surface
waters. This approach is characterised by high water consumption and large central
treatment works. The design of treatment facilities is normally based on the removal of
suspended solids and biological treatment with hydraulics largely determining the sizing
of holding tanks (Khouri et al., 1994). Water consumption, therefore, has a huge bearing
on capital costs. Traditional sanitation systems also require highly skilled labour,
imported spare parts, consume a lot of energy and are costly to maintain (Veenstra et al.,
1997). Plants are normally built larger than required to allow for upsets and uncertainties
in their ability to treat the water adequately.
The Irrational use of water has serious implications on wastewater treatment. Water of
drinking quality is used for non-potable uses, including the transportation of waste (flush
toilets), gardening, cleaning floors, and washing cars. One may wonder why 150–300
litres of potable water per capita is used when only 1–2 litres per day are needed for
drinking. is it sensible to dilute the compact volumes of human excreta with large
quantities of water simply to transport this waste to another location? The term “drinking
 Introduction 5

water” seems misleading as more than 99% of the product carrying this name is for
purposes other than drinking. Water is erroneously assumed to be an infinite resource
when, in fact, it is limited in terms of quality and location. The use of one litre of water
will result in an almost equal volume of wastewater, and one litre of wastewater is
generally more expensive to treat than a similar volume of drinking water (Gunnerson
and French, 1996; Gijzen, 2001). As a result, attempts to copy the expensive and
inefficient urban water cycle as used in ‘western’ countries, have resulted in a large
proportion of the population in developing regions being left without safe water supply
and sanitation services.
Not only is the current urban water cycle not sustainable, but it is also coupled to non-
sustainable nutrient cycles. For example, the current anthropogenic influx of nitrogen into
the biosphere via fertiliser production amounts to some 37% of natural nitrogen fixation
(Gijzen and Mulder, 2001). Balancing the N-cycle would require the large-scale
introduction of biological nitrogen removal, which, under current technical and economic
conditions, is only feasible for a small fraction of the world wastewater production.
Probably less than 2% of all nitrogen in wastewater is treated for N-removal
(denitrification) and this will lead to a further built up of nitrogen in the environment and
in water resources resulting in widespread eutrophication and other problems. It is
therefore irrational to spend energy and money fixing nitrogen, and to spend energy and
money again for denitrification. The same applies to phosphorus, which is essential for
agricultural production. Mineral reserves of phosphorus will last for only about 100–150
years (Otterpohl et al., 1996), and for this reason, it should not be wasted to receiving
waters, where it will end up in sediments. A solution to this is reuse and short cycling of
nitrogen and phosphorus by coupling water and nutrient cycles with resource recovery
and reuse.
Methane is another valuable by-product of wastewater. When organic matter is treated
anaerobically about 375 I of methane gas can be expected from each kilogram of BOD
digested material. Assuming an almost complete conversion of organic matter into
biogas, a daily production of 25–45 I of methane per capita can be expected (Gijzen,
1998). The gas could be used as energy to power treatment plants or for pumping
wastewater to irrigation areas.

A new approach
It is obvious that the current approach adopted for urban water does not provide
sustainable solutions for the majority of the world population, notably in developing
regions. There is therefore a strong case for designers and policymakers to challenge the
conventional approach and explore alternatives before committing themselves to a
central, mechanised wastewater system. These alternatives should focus on basic needs
for dignity and quality of life and should balance these with the needs of the environment.
The resource value of wastewater should be recognised and its management should be
holistic and form part of an integrated process of managing water resources, nutrient
flows and wastes. This requires rationalisation of the food and water cycles to avoid a net
accumulation of nutrients and other pollutants in water bodies. The water and food
cycles, indeed, are intimately interconnected but they could be improved further via
shorter cycles. This entails a cyclical (loop) approach to water and nutrient management
 Options for wastewater management in harare, zimbabwe 6

(Fig 1.2) as opposed to the conventional, linear flow (Fig 1.1). Thus, problems are
avoided instead of wasting resources in solving them.

Figure 1.2: Mass fluxes in a

sustainable urban sanitation approach
(Source: Otterpohl et al., 1998)

Wastewater management in Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe is one of the few African countries that have been able to provide water and
sanitation to over 90% of its urban population (WHO/UNICEF, 2001). By law, all
households are compelled to have an acceptable sanitation system before an occupation
certificate is issued (Urban Councils Act, Chapter 29.15; Regional Town and Country
Planning Act, Chapter 29.6). Onsite systems like bucket systems and pit latrines are not
allowed in urban areas of Zimbabwe (Taylor and Mudege, 1997) and only flushing toilets
with either septic tanks or conventional sewerage are permitted. Smaller urban centres
use mostly septic tanks but few towns have vacuum tankers to periodically empty them.
It is estimated that more than 92% of urban households are connected to the sewerage
system (Table 1.1).
Urban councils are the water authorities in Zimbabwe, and this includes
responsibilities for sanitation services according to the Urban Councils Act. Recent strict
effluent treatment standards (Government of Zimbabwe, Statutory Instrument 274 of
2000) have increased financial pressures on councils by prescribing tougher effluent
standards and high penalties for non-compliance; a situation that encourages tertiary
treatment instead of reuse. All effluent and waste discharges require a permit. This has
led to increased tariffs for users who are already faced with an ailing economy,
abnormally high inflation, escalating prices and soaring unemployment rates. Problems
 Introduction 7

relating to serious water pollution are more pronounced in Harare, the capital city,
located in the Lake Chivero catchment area (Thornton and Nduku, 1982; Moyo, 1997).
Table 1.1: Number of Zimbabwean urban
households using each sanitation technology by
Province (Source: Taylor and Mudege, 1997)
Province TECHNOLOGY
Flush Blair Pit Bucket None No No. of
data Households
Manicaland 96.6 1.48 1.66 0 0.25 0.01 43,587
Mashonaland 85.37 7.73 4.97 0.15 1.74 0.04 15,684
Central
Mashonaland 87.94 4.88 3.69 0 3.14 0.05 15,160
east
Mashonaland 90.43 1.9 4.8 0 2.87 0 60,767
West
Matabeleland 91.44 1.33 5.53 0 1.64 0.01 16,719
North
Matabeleland 88.37 3.86 5.08 0.08 2.57 0.03 11,964
South
Midlands 94.4 1.37 2.23 0 2.01 0.01 70,196
Masvingo 97.01 1.04 0.93 0 1.03 0 24,181
Harare 93.94 1.71 4.19 0 0.13 0.04 359,216
Bulawayo 98.41 0.51 0.65 0 0.42 0.01 145,962
National 92.4 2.6 3.4 0.0 1.6 0.0
average
Total 720,450 12,536 24,302 33 5,924 189 763,436
#households
*Blair toilets are commonly referred to as Ventilated Improved Pit
(VIP) latrines.

(Waste)water management and pollution in the Chivero Basin

The location of Harare in Zimbabwe is shown in Fig 1.3 and that of Lake Chivero
relative to Harare is shown in Fig 1.4. Lake Chivero has a storage capacity of
247,181,000 m3, a surface area of 26.3 km2, maximum depth of 27.43 m, and an average
depth of 9.3 m (Thornton and Nduku, 1982; JICA, 1996; Marshall, 1997;). The lake was
created in 1952 and is located 35 km south-west and downstream of Harare. It is the
major water source for the city (providing over 70% of its needs) and the neighbouring
towns of Epworth, Norton, Chitungwiza and Ruwa. The mean annual rainfall is 830 mm
(JICA, 1996; Luxemburg, 1996) and the mean annual runoff is about 140 mm
(Department of Water Development, 1995).
 Options for wastewater management in harare, zimbabwe 8

Figure 1.3: Map showing the location

of Harare in Zimbabwe
(Source:
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/cia02/zimbabwe_sm02.gif
)

The preliminary results of the 2002 census (CSO, 2002) estimated that the population in
the Harare metropolitan area was about 1,900,000. Water consumption in Harare
averages 430,000 m3/d and 304,000 m3/d (or 70% of it) is collected as wastewater. Only
23,800 m3/d of wastewater is treated onsite and two main wastewater treatment plants
(WTP) serve the city. These are the Firle (capacity 144,000 m3/d) and the Crowborough
(54,000 m3/d) wastewater treatment plants. Treatment is mainly by trickling filters (TF)
and activated sludge systems incorporating Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR). About
70% of this effluent is reused for pasture irrigation whilst the rest is discharged into the
Mukuvisi and Marimba Rivers (JICA, 1996). There are also two waste stabilisation pond
systems in Marlborough and Donnybrook with combined treatment capacity of 7,500
m3/d and a new extended aeration plant in Hatcliffe with a capacity of 2,500 m3/d.
Overloading and maintenance problems plague all the plants and the quality of the final
effluent flowing into rivers is very poor.
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