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09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Contents

Preface vii
Contributors ix
Future Contributions xi

1. Surface Plasmon-Enhanced Photoemission and Electron Acceleration

with Ultrashort Laser Pulses 1
Péter Dombi

1. Introduction 2
2. Electron Emission and Photoacceleration in Surface Plasmon Fields 3
3. Numerical Methods to Model Surface Plasmon-Enhanced Electron Acceleration 7
4. Experimental Results 16
5. The Role of the Carrier-Envelope Phase 21
6. Conclusions 23
Acknowledgments 24
References 24

2. Did Physics Matter to the Pioneers of Microscopy? 27

Brian J. Ford

1. Introduction 27
2. Setting the Scene 28
3. Traditional Limits of Light Microscopy 30
4. Origins of the Cell Theory 39
5. Pioneers of Field Microscopy 58
6. The Image of the Simple Microscope 70
Acknowledgments 84
References 85

3. Image Decomposition: Theory, Numerical Schemes, and Performance

Evaluation 89
Jérôme Gilles

1. Introduction 90
2. Preliminaries 90
3. Structures + Textures Decomposition 102
4. Structures + Textures + Noise Decomposition 110
5. Performance Evaluation 123
6. Conclusion 128
Appendix A. Chambolle’s Nonlinear Projectors 130
References 135

v
vi Contents

4. The Reverse Fuzzy Distance Transform and its Use when Studying the
Shape of Macromolecules from Cryo-Electron Tomographic Data 139
Stina Svensson

1. Introduction 140
2. Preliminaries 142
3. Segmentation Using Region Growing by Means of the Reverse Fuzzy Distance
Transform 151
4. Cryo-Electron Tomography for Imaging of Individual Macromolecules 153
5. From Electron Tomographic Structure to a Fuzzy Objects Representation 160
6. Identifying the Subunits of a Macromolecule 161
7. Identifying the Core of an Elongated Macromolecule 165
8. Conclusions 167
Acknowledgments 168
References 168

5. Anchors of Morphological Operators and Algebraic Openings 173

M. Van Droogenbroeck

1. Introduction 173
2. Morphological Anchors 182
3. Anchors of Algebraic Openings 195
4. Conclusions 199
References 200

6. Temporal Filtering Technique Using Time Lenses for Optical Transmission

Systems 203
Dong Yang, Shiva Kumar, and Hao Wang

1. Introduction 203
2. Configuration of a Time-Lens–based Optical Signal Processing System 206
3. Wavelength Division Demultiplexer 211
4. Dispersion Compensator 216
5. Optical Implementation of Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing Using
Time Lenses 219
6. Conclusions 226
Acknowledgment 227
Appendix A 227
Appendix B 228
Appendix C 229
References 231

Contents of Volumes 151–157 233

Index 235
 Preface

Ben Kazan, 1982

Before describing the contents of this volume, let me first say a few words
about Benjamin Kazan, one of the Honorary Associate Editors of these
Advances, whose death on January 14 2009 was mentioned briefly in the
preface to volume 157. He was editor of the Academic Press series, Advances
in Image Pickup and Display from 1974 to 1983, after which the title was
absorbed into Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics (the earlier title of
these Advances).
Ben Kazan, born in New York in 1917, received his B.S. degree from
the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, in 1938 and his M.A. from
Columbia University, New York, in 1940. In 1961, he was awarded the D.Sc.
degree by the Technical University of Munich. From 1940 to 1950, he was
Section Head at the Signal Corps Engineering Laboratories, working on the
development of new microwave storage and display tubes. For the next
eight years, he was engaged in work on colour television tubes and solid-
state intensifiers at the RCA Research Laboratories. From 1958 to 1962, he
was head of the Solid-state Display Group at Hughes Research Laboratories,
after which he moved to Electro-Optical Systems, an affiliate of the Xerox
Corporation, again working on solid-state and electro-optical systems. From
1968–1974, he was employed at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center.
His last position was head of the Display Group at the Palo Alto Research
Center of the Xerox Corporation. A dinner was held in his honour at Xerox,
as the person holding the most patents at Xerox.
In addition to his editorship of Advances in Image Pickup and Display, he
was co-author of two books (notably, Electronic Image Storage with M. Knoll,

vii
viii Preface

Academic Press, New York 1968) and was also editor of the Proceedings of the
Society for Information Display. He was a Fellow of this Society as well as a
member of the American Physical Society.
In his leisure hours, he played the violin and enjoyed books about music
and medical topics, biographies and many other subjects. He was man of
great kindness and generosity and will be greatly missed by his family and
friends. On behalf of the publishers and myself, we extend our sincerest
condolences to Gerda Mosse-Kazan, his widow.
The present volume contains six chapters on very different subjects,
ranging from the early history of the microscope to mathematical
morphology, time lenses, fuzzy sets and electron acceleration. We begin
with a study of surface-plasmon-enhanced photoemission and electron
acceleration using ultrashort laser pulses by P. Dombi. This is a very young
subject and P. Dombi explains in detail what is involved and the physics of
these complicated processes.
This is followed by a fascinating article on the development of (light)
microscopy by B.J. Ford, with the provocative title ‘Did physics matter to
the pioneers of microscopy?’ He has chosen to work back to Hooke and van
Leeuwenhoek, starting with the microscopes we know today. I do not need to
do more than urge all readers of these Advances to plunge into this chapter,
which is truly ‘unputdownable’!
How can an image be decomposed into its various structural and textural
components? This is the subject of the chapter by J. Gilles, who provides a
very lucid account of recent progress in this area. The mathematical prelimi-
naries, which cover all the newer kinds of wavelets – ridgelets, curvelets and
contourlets – form an essential basis on which the remainder reposes.
The fourth chapter, by S. Svensson, brings together two different topics:
fuzzy distance transforms and electron tomography. Once again, the opening
sections provide a solid mathematical basis for the application envisaged and
I am certain that this full introductory account to these techniques will be
heavily used.
The next chapter will appeal to mathematical morphologists: here, M. van
Droogenbroeck describes the notion of anchors of morphological operators
and algebraic openings. This concept is placed in context and the chapter
forms a self-contained account of this particular aspect of mathematical
morphology.
The volume ends with another new subject, time lenses for optical
transmission systems, by D. Yang, S. Kumar and H. Wang. Spatial imaging
has a perfect analogy in the time domain and this is exploited for temporal
filtering. The authors introduce us to the subject before going more deeply
into the possible ways of pursuing this analogy.
As always, I thank the authors for all the trouble they have taken to make
their work accessible to a wide readership.

Peter W. Hawkes
 Contributors

Péter Dombi 1
Research Institute for Solid-State Physics and Optics, Budapest,
Konkoly-Thege M. út, Hungary
Brian J. Ford 27
Gonville & Caius College, University of Cambridge, UK
Jérôme Gilles 89
DGA/CEP - EORD Department, 16bis rue Prieur de la Côte d’Or,
Arcueil, France
Stina Svensson 139
Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institute,
Stockholm, Sweden
M. Van Droogenbroeck 173
University of Liège, Department of Electrical Engineering and
Computer Science, Montefiore, Sart Tilman, Liège, Belgium
Dong Yang, Shiva Kumar, and Hao Wang 203
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster
University, Canada

ix
 Future Contributions

S. Ando
Gradient operators and edge and corner detection
K. Asakura
Energy-filtering x-ray PEEM
W. Bacsa
Optical interference near surfaces, sub-wavelength microscopy and spectro-
scopic sensors
C. Beeli
Structure and microscopy of quasicrystals
C. Bobisch and R. Möller
Ballistic electron microscopy
G. Borgefors
Distance transforms
Z. Bouchal
Non-diffracting optical beams
A. Buchau
Boundary element or integral equation methods for static and time-
dependent problems
B. Buchberger
Gröbner bases
E. Cosgriff, P. D. Nellist, L. J. Allen, A. J. d’Alfonso, S. D. Findlay, and A. I. Kirkland
Three-dimensional imaging using aberration-corrected scanning confocal
electron microscopy
T. Cremer
Neutron microscopy
A. V. Crewe (Special volume on STEM, 159)
Early STEM
A. Engel (Special volume on STEM, 159)
STEM in the life sciences
A. N. Evans
Area morphology scale-spaces for colour images

xi
xii Future Contributions

A. X. Falcão
The image foresting transform
R. G. Forbes
Liquid metal ion sources
C. Fredembach
Eigenregions for image classification
J. Giesen, Z. Baranczuk, K. Simon, and P. Zolliker
Gamut mapping
A. Gölzhäuser
Recent advances in electron holography with point sources
M. Haschke
Micro-XRF excitation in the scanning electron microscope
P. W. Hawkes (Special volume on STEM, 159)
The Siemens and AEI STEMs
L. Hermi, M. A. Khabou, and M. B. H. Rhouma
Shape recognition based on eigenvalues of the Laplacian
M. I. Herrera
The development of electron microscopy in Spain
H. Inada and H. Kakibayashi (Special volume on STEM, 159)
Development of cold field-emission STEM at Hitachi
M. S. Isaacson (Special volume on STEM, 159)
Early STEM development
J. Isenberg
Imaging IR-techniques for the characterization of solar cells
K. Ishizuka
Contrast transfer and crystal images
A. Jacobo
Intracavity type II second-harmonic generation for image processing
B. Jouffrey (Special volume on STEM, 159)
The Toulouse high-voltage STEM project
L. Kipp
Photon sieves
G. Kögel
Positron microscopy
T. Kohashi
Spin-polarized scanning electron microscopy
 Future Contributions xiii

O. L. Krivanek (Special volume on STEM, 159)

Aberration-corrected STEM
R. Leitgeb
Fourier domain and time domain optical coherence tomography
B. Lencová
Modern developments in electron optical calculations
H. Lichte
New developments in electron holography
M. Mankos
High-throughput LEEM
M. Matsuya
Calculation of aberration coefficients using Lie algebra
S. McVitie
Microscopy of magnetic specimens
J. Mendiola Santibañez, I. R. Terol-Villalobos, and I. M. Santillán-Méndez (Vol. 160)
Connected morphological contrast mappings
I. Moreno Soriano and C. Ferreira
Fractional Fourier transforms and geometrical optics
M. A. O’Keefe
Electron image simulation
D. Oulton and H. Owens
Colorimetric imaging
N. Papamarkos and A. Kesidis
The inverse Hough transform
K. S. Pedersen, A. Lee, and M. Nielsen
The scale-space properties of natural images
E. Rau
Energy analysers for electron microscopes
P. Rudenberg (Vol. 160)
The work of R. Rüdenberg
R. Shimizu, T. Ikuta, and Y. Takai
Defocus image modulation processing in real time
S. Shirai
CRT gun design methods
A. S. Skapin and P. Ropret (Vol. 160)
The use of optical and scanning electron microscopy in the study of ancient
pigments
xiv Future Contributions

K. C. A. Smith (Special volume on STEM, 159)

STEM in Cambridge
T. Soma
Focus-deflection systems and their applications
P. Sussner and M. E. Valle
Fuzzy morphological associative memories
L. Swanson and G. A. Schwind (Special volume on STEM, 159)
Cold field-emission sources
I. Talmon
Study of complex fluids by transmission electron microscopy
M. E. Testorf and M. Fiddy
Imaging from scattered electromagnetic fields, investigations into an
unsolved problem
N. M. Towghi
I p norm optimal filters
E. Twerdowski
Defocused acoustic transmission microscopy
Y. Uchikawa
Electron gun optics
K. Vaeth and G. Rajeswaran
Organic light-emitting arrays
V. Velisavljevic and M. Vetterli (Vol. 160)
Space-frequence quantization using directionlets
S. von Harrach (Special volume on STEM, 159)
STEM development at Vacuum Generators, the later years
J. Wall, M. N. Simon, and J. F. Hainfeld (Special volume on STEM, 159)
History of the STEM at Brookhaven National Laboratory
I. R. Wardell and P. Bovey (Special volume on STEM, 159)
STEM development at Vacuum Generators, the early years
M. H. F. Wilkinson and G. Ouzounis
Second generation connectivity and attribute filters
P. Ye
Harmonic holography
 Chapter 1
Surface Plasmon-Enhanced
Photoemission and Electron
Acceleration with Ultrashort Laser
Pulses
Péter Dombi

Contents 1. Introduction 2
2. Electron Emission and Photoacceleration in Surface Plasmon Fields 3
2.1. Emission Mechanisms 3
2.2. Emission Currents 5
2.3. Electron Acceleration in Evanescent Surface Plasmon Fields 7
3. Numerical Methods to Model Surface Plasmon-Enhanced Electron
Acceleration 7
3.1. Elements of the Model 7
3.2. Model Results 11
4. Experimental Results 16
4.1. Surface Plasmon-Enhanced Photoemission 16
4.2. Generation of High-Energy Electrons 18
4.3. Time-Resolved Studies of the Emission 19
5. The Role of the Carrier-Envelope Phase 21
5.1. Light-Matter Interaction with Few-Cycle Laser Pulses, Carrier-
Envelope Phase Dependence 21
5.2. Carrier-Envelope Phase-Controlled Electron Acceleration 22
6. Conclusions 23
Acknowledgments 24
References 24

Research Institute for Solid-State Physics and Optics, Budapest, Konkoly-Thege M. út, Hungary

Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics, Volume 158, ISSN 1076-5670, DOI: 10.1016/S1076-5670(09)00006-8.
Copyright c 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1
2 Péter Dombi

1. INTRODUCTION

It was shown recently that ultrashort, intense laser pulses are particularly
well suited for the generation of electron and other charged particle
beams both in the relativistic and the nonrelativistic intensity regimes
of laser-solid interactions (Irvine, Dechant, & Elezzabi, 2004; Leemans
et al., 2006, and references therein). One method to generate well-behaved,
optically accelerated electron beams with relatively low-intensity light pulses
is surface plasmon polariton (SPP)-enhanced electron acceleration. Due
to the intrinsic phenomenon of the enhancement of the SPP field (with
respect to the field of the SPP-generating laser pulse), substantial field
strength can be created in the vicinity of metal surfaces with simple,
high-repetition-rate, unamplified laser sources. This results in both SPP-
enhanced electron photoemission and electron acceleration in the SPP field.
SPP-enhanced photoemission was demonstrated in several experimental
publications. Typical photocurrent enhancement values ranged from ×50 to
×3500 achieved solely by SPP excitation (Tsang, Srinivasan-Rao, & Fischer,
1991).
In addition to SPP-enhanced photoemission, the electrons in the vicinity
of the metal surface can undergo significant cycle-by-cycle acceleration in
the evanescent plasmonic field. This phenomenon, termed SPP-enhanced
electron acceleration, was discovered recently and was experimentally
demonstrated to be suitable for the production of relatively high-energy,
quasi-monoenergetic electron beams with the usage of simple femtosecond
lasers (Irvine et al., 2004; Kupersztych, Monchicourt, & Raynaud, 2001;
Zawadzka, Jaroszynski, Carey, & Wynne, 2001). In this scheme, the
evanescent electric field of SPPs accelerates photo-emitted electrons away
from the surface. This process can be so efficient that multi-keV kinetic
energy levels can be reached without external direct current (DC) fields
(Irvine and Elezzabi, 2005; Irvine et al., 2004). This method seems particularly
advantageous for the generation of well-behaved femtosecond electron
beams that can later be used for infrared pump/electron probe methods,
such as ultrafast electron diffraction or microscopy (Lobastov, Srinivasan, &
Zewail, 2005; Siwick, Dwyer, Jordan, & Miller, 2003). These time-resolved
methods using electron beams can gain importance in the future by enabling
both high spatial and high temporal resolution material characterization at
the same time. They will become particularly interesting if the attosecond
temporal resolution domain becomes within reach with electron diffraction
and microscopy methods, as suggested recently (Fill, Veisz, Apolonski,
& Krausz, 2006; Stockman, Kling, Krausz, & Kleineberg, 2007; Varró and
Farkas, 2008). Moreover, studying the spectral properties of femtosecond
electron beams has the potential to reveal ultrafast excitation dynamics in
solids and to provide the basis for a single-shot measurement tool of the
carrier-envelope (CE) phase (or the optical waveform) of ultrashort laser
 Surface Plasmon-Enhanced Electron Acceleration with Ultrashort Laser Pulses 3

pulses, as we suggested recently (Dombi and Rácz, 2008a; Irvine, Dombi,

Farkas, & Elezzabi, 2006). Other waveform-sensitive laser-solid interactions
that have already been demonstrated (Apolonski et al., 2004; Dombi et al.,
2004; Fortier et al., 2004; Mücke et al., 2004) suffer from low experimental
contrast; therefore, it is necessary to look for higher-contrast tools for direct
phase measurement.
Motivated by these possibilities, it was shown numerically (and also
partly experimentally) that surface plasmonic electron sources can be
ideally controlled with ultrashort laser pulses so that they deliver highly
directional, monoenergetic electron beams readily synchronized with the
pump pulse (Dombi and Rácz, 2008a; Irvine et al., 2004, 2006). We developed
a simple semiclassical approach for the simulation of this process analogous
to the three-step model of high harmonic generation (Corkum, 1993;
Kulander, Schafer, & Krause, 1993). In this chapter, we review the basic
elements of this model and prove that it delivers the same results as a
much more complicated treatment of the problem based on the rigorous,
but computationally time-consuming, solution of Maxwell’s equations.
Results gained with this latter method showed very good agreement with
experimental electron spectra (Irvine, 2006). We also provide new insight into
the spatiotemporal dynamics of SPP-enhanced electron acceleration, which
is also important if one intends to realize adaptive emission control methods
(Aeschlimann et al., 2007).

2. ELECTRON EMISSION AND PHOTOACCELERATION IN SURFACE

PLASMON FIELDS

2.1. Emission Mechanisms

Laser-induced electron emission processes of both atoms and solids
are determined by the intensity of the exciting laser pulse. At low
intensities where the field of the laser pulse is not sufficient to distort the
potential significantly, multiphoton-induced processes dominate at visible
wavelengths. These nonlinear processes can be described by a perturbative
approach in this case. Light-matter interaction is predominantly non-
adiabatic and it is governed by the evolution of the amplitude of the laser
field, or, in other words, the intensity envelope of the laser pulse.
Tunneling or field emission takes over at higher intensities. This emission
regime is determined by the fact that the potential is distorted by the laser
field to an extent that it allows tunneling (or, at even higher intensities,
above-barrier detachment) of the electron through the modulated potential
barrier, the width of which is determined by the laser field strength. The
interaction is determined by the instantaneous field strength of the laser
pulse; the photocurrent generated in this manner follows the field evolution
4 Péter Dombi

(a) Vacuum niveau

~ 5 eV
typically
Fermi niveau

(b)

Vacuum niveau

Fermi niveau

FIGURE 1 Schematic illustration of photo-induced electron emission processes in different

laser-intensity regimes when the work function of the metal is more than twice the photon
energy (typical for most metals and for near-infrared wavelengths). (a) Multiphoton-induced
photoemission. (b) Tunneling or field emission through the potential barrier the width of
which is modulated by the laser field.

adiabatically. This interaction type is also referred to as the strong-field

regime of nonlinear optics. The difference between multiphoton-induced
and field emission is illustrated in Figure 1.
There are, of course, intermediate intensities where the contribution
of multiphoton and field emission processes can become comparable.
This case is termed as non-adiabatic tunnel ionization and its theoretical
treatment is considerably more complicated (Yudin and Ivanov, 2001). It
should be mentioned that at significantly higher intensities characteristically
different plasma and relativistic effects can also contribute to the light-matter
interaction process. This regime, however, is not discussed here.
It follows from simple considerations that the average oscillation energy
of an electron in the field of an infinite electromagnetic plane wave is

e2 El2
Up = , (1)
4mω2

where the electron charge and rest mass are denoted by e and m, respectively,
ω is the angular frequency, and the field strength of the laser field is given by
El . This quantity is called ponderomotive potential in the literature.
The analysis by Keldysh (1965) yielded the perturbation parameter γ ,
which proved to be an efficient scale parameter to describe bound-free
transitions induced by laser fields. Its value is given by
 Surface Plasmon-Enhanced Electron Acceleration with Ultrashort Laser Pulses 5
√ !2
W ω 2mW
γ =
2
= , (2)
2U p eEl

where W is the binding energy of the most weakly bound electron in an

atom (ionization potential) or the work function of the metal. It can be
shown that for the case γ  1, multiphoton-induced processes dominate.
On the other hand, the γ  1 condition indicates the dominance of field
emission. The intensity corresponding to γ ∼ 1 signifies the transition regime
between multiphoton-induced and field emission (Farkas, Chin, Galarneau,
& Yergeau, 1983; Tóth, Farkas, & Vodopyanov, 1991) and this parameter
region is sometimes termed the non-adiabatic tunnel ionization regime
(Yudin and Ivanov, 2001). It can also be shown that γ = τt ω holds where τt is
the Büttiker–Landauer traversal time for tunneling (Büttiker and Landauer,
1982).

2.2. Emission Currents

2.2.1. Multiphoton-Induced Emission
As suggested by the previous considerations, the time dependence of the
electron emission currents can be described by different formulas in the
multiphoton and the field emission cases. During multiphoton-induced
emission the energy of n photons is converted into overcoming the work
function of the metal and into the kinetic energy of the freed electron:
nh̄ω = E kin + W . In this case, the probability of the electron generation is
proportional to the nth power of the intensity of the laser field:

j (t) ∝ I n (t). (3)

This formula yields a very good approximation of the temporal emission

profile, provided that no finite-lifetime intermediate states exist. For
example, the full quantum mechanical description of the multiphoton-
induced photoemission process yielded a very similar dependence recently
(Lemell, Tong, Krausz, & Burgdörfer, 2003), although with a somewhat
asymmetric temporal profile. Thus, it can be seen that in this case it is the
momentary amplitude of the field oscillation that determines the emission
probability. As a result of formula (3), for example, if we take a Gaussian
laser pulse profile, I (t), the electron
√ emission curve, j (t), has a full width
at half maximum (FWHM) that is n times shorter than the FWHM of the
original I (t) curve (Figure 2).

2.2.2. Field or Tunneling Emission

The case of field or tunneling emission can be described by more complex
equations. Depending on the model used, several tunneling formulas have
6 Péter Dombi

Field envelope
1.0 Three-photon-induced
photoemission
Field emission
0.8

Photocurrent (arb. u.) 0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
–8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8
Time (fs)

FIGURE 2 Examples of electron emission temporal profiles for a few-cycle laser pulse with a
duration of 3.5- fs (intensity full width at half maximum (FWHM)). The dotted curve depicts
the field envelope evolution. The dashed curve is the photocurrent temporal distribution for
a three-photon-induced photoemission. The solid curve is the photocurrent profile for
tunneling electron emission from the surface, determined by the Fowler–Nordheim equation
(see text for further details).

been proposed. The one used most generally for metals both for static
and for oscillating laser fields is the so-called Fowler–Nordheim equation
(Binh, Garcia, & Purcell, 1996; Hommelhoff, Sortais, Aghajani-Talesh, &
Kasevich, 2006), where the electric field dependence of the tunneling current
is described by
√ !
e3 El (t)2 8π 2mW 3/2
j (t) ∝ exp − v(w) , (4)
8π hW t 2 (w) 3he |El (t)|

where El (t) denotes the laser field strength, e and m the electron charge
and mass, respectively, and h is the Planck constant. W stands for the work
function of the metal. v(w) is a slowly varying function taking into account
the image force of the tunneling electron with 0.4 < v(w) < 0.8, and the
value of the function
√ t (w) can be taken as t (w) ≈ 1 for tunneling emission
with w = e3/2 El /4πε0 /W.
The characteristic form of the j (t) curve for this case is shown in
Figure 2. The electron emission is concentrated mainly in the vicinity of those
instants when the field strength reaches its maximum value. Note that the
experimental investigation of pure field emission is very limited for metals
(at visible wavelengths) since the damage threshold of bulk metal surfaces
and thin films lies around an intensity of 1013 W/cm2 , which is very close to
the intensity value where the γ ∼ 1 condition is met. A practical approach
 Surface Plasmon-Enhanced Electron Acceleration with Ultrashort Laser Pulses 7

to circumnavigate this problem is needed, to be able to investigate these

processes experimentally. The exploitation of far-infrared sources proved
suitable for this purpose where the γ ∼ 1 condition can be met at much lower
intensities (Farkas et al., 1983). In addition, plasmonic field enhancement can
be exploited in the visible spectral region so that γ  1 can be achieved for
metal films without damaging the surface. This latter method is also more
advantageous due to the lack of ultrashort laser sources in the far-infrared
domain. The phenomenon of plasmonic field enhancement is described in
detail in the next section.

2.3. Electron Acceleration in Evanescent Surface Plasmon Fields

After photoemission had taken place from the metal surface, the electrons
travel in vacuum dressed by the SPP field. This situation can be
approximated by solving the classical equations of motion for the electron in
the electromagnetic field of the surface plasmons. This concept is somewhat
similar to the three-step model of high harmonic generation on atoms where
the electron is considered as a free particle after tunneling photoinonization
had taken place induced by the electric field of the laser pulse (Corkum, 1993;
Kulander et al., 1993). We adapted a model similar to the SPP environment
where instead of a single atom, a solid surface is involved that determines
the conditions for recollision. Because of the presence of the surface, many
electrons recollide or cannot even accelerate because the Lorentz force points
toward the surface at the instant of photoemission, or, in other words, at the
instant of the “birth” of the electron in vacuum. This latter situation is also
modeled by recombination; therefore, these electrons must be disregarded
when the properties of the electron bunch are determined.
The rest of the electrons experience cycle-by-cycle kinetic energy gain and
become accelerated along the electric field gradient. This mechanism is the
same if the envelope of the laser pulse is made up of only few optical cycles;
however, the final kinetic energy will not be composed of a large number of
incremental, cycle-by-cycle kinetic energy gain portions as in the case of long
pulses. Due to the reduced time the electrons spend in the field of the few-
cycle SPPs, however, the expected final kinetic energy will be lower. These
intuitive predictions are confirmed numerically in the upcoming sections.

3. NUMERICAL METHODS TO MODEL SURFACE

PLASMON-ENHANCED ELECTRON ACCELERATION

3.1. Elements of the Model

As discussed previously, SPP-enhanced electron acceleration involves
distinct physical processes such as (i) the coupling of the incident light
and surface plasmonic electromagnetic fields, (ii) the photoinjection of
the electrons into vacuum from the metal layer, and (iii) the subsequent
8 Péter Dombi

acceleration of free electrons by the decaying SPP field on the vacuum side
of the surface. The elements of the model that we used correspond to these
individual steps of the process; therefore, they are presented in separate
sections below.
3.1.1. Solution of the Field
In order to determine SPP fields accurately, Maxwell’s equations can
be solved with the so-called finite difference time-domain (FDTD) method.
This approach was used for the Kretschmann–Raether SPP coupling
configuration in previous studies (Irvine and Elezzabi, 2006; Irvine et al.,
2004). In this case, the components of the electric field, the electric
displacement, and the magnetic intensity vectors are solved for a grid placed
upon the given geometry. Since the FDTD method provides the complete
numerical solution of Maxwell’s equations, it is computationally rather
intensive and more complex geometries cannot be handled with simple
personal computers due to the increased processor times required.
Therefore, we proposed analytic formulas to describe SPP fields (Dombi
and Rácz, 2008a). Based on the well-known fact that these fields decay
exponentially by moving away from the surface (Raether, 1988), we took an
analytic expression for the SPP field components on the vacuum side of the
metal layer in the form of

E ySPP (x, y, t) = ηE 0 E env (x, t) cos (kSPP x − ωt + ϕ0 ) exp(−αy) (5a)

 π 
E x (x, y, t) = ηa E 0 E env (x, t) cos kSPP x − ωt − + ϕ0 exp(−αy), (5b)
SPP
2

where E 0 is the field amplitude, E env (x, t) is an envelope function determined

by the temporal and spatial beam profiles of the incoming Gaussian pulse,
η is the field enhancement factor resulting from plasmon coupling (Raether,
1988), kSPP is the SPP wave vector, ω is the carrier frequency, ϕ0 is the CE
phase of the laser pulse, and α is the decay length of the plasmonic field in
vacuum given by
s
ω2
α −1 = 2
− kSPP (6)
c2

(Irvine and Elezzabi, 2006). For laser pulses with a central wavelength of
800 nm, the evanescent decay parameter α = 247 nm−1 follows from Eq. (6).
We used the value of a = 0.3 according to the notion that the amplitudes of
the x- and y-components of the plasmonic field have this ratio according to
the numerical solution of Maxwell’s equations (Irvine and Elezzabi, 2006). It
can be concluded that the field given by Eqs. (5a) and (5b) approximates
the exact SPP field with very good accuracy by comparing our results to
 Surface Plasmon-Enhanced Electron Acceleration with Ultrashort Laser Pulses 9

0.5

y 0.4

y (micron)
0.3
x
0.2

0.1

0
–0.5 –0.25 0 0.25 0.5
x (micron)

FIGURE 3 Illustration of the setup for the generation of electron beams by surface
plasmon- enhanced electron acceleration with the distribution of the electric field amplitude
on the vacuum side of the surface, field vectors (inset) and electron trajectories. For further
details, see text. (Source: Dombi and Rácz (2008a).)

those of Irvine and Elezzabi (2006). The distribution of the field amplitude
in the vicinity of the surface is shown in Figure 3 which shows very good
agreement with the above-mentioned calculation. We also succeeded in
reproducing the vector representation of the field depicted in Figure 3 of
Irvine and Elezzabi (2006) with this method. The representation of the vector
field that can be calculated with our model is depicted in the inset of Figure 3.

3.1.2. Electron Emission Channels and Currents Induced by Plasmonic Fields

After the determination of the field, a point array can be placed along the
prism surface and the spatial and temporal distribution of the photoemission
(induced by the SPP field) along the surface can be examined, assuming
that field emission takes place at higher intensities. To this end, we applied
the Fowler–Nordheim equation routinely used in studies involving electron
emission from metal nanotips (Hommelhoff, Kealhofer, & Kasevich, 2006;
Hommelhoff, Sortais et al., 2006; Ropers, Solli, Schulz, Lienau, & Elsaesser,
2007). This describes the instantaneous tunneling current based on the
fact that plasmonic fields carry substantial field enhancement factors (up
to ×100) compared to the generating field. One can gain a spatially and
temporally resolved map of tunneling probabilities determined by the SPP
field this way. The temporal distribution, for example, can be seen in
Figure 2. Similar probability distribution curves also result for the spatial
coordinates. According to these probabilities, each photoemitted and SPP-
accelerated electron that is examined can be assigned a corresponding
weight. This weight must be used to accurately determine the final kinetic
energy spectrum of the electron beam.
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