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BOMBARDED BRITAIN
A Search for British Impact Structures
This page is intentionally left blank
 Richard S t r a t f o r d
INSPEC, UK

BOMBARDED BRITAIN
A Search for British I m p a c t Structures

-iffi Imperial College Press

Published by
Imperial College Press
57 Shelton Street
Covent Garden
London WC2H 9HE

Distributed by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: Suite 202, 1060 Main Street, River Edge, NJ 07661
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Maps reproduced from Ordnance Survey mapping on behalf of The Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office
© Crown Copyright. Licence Number MC 100038893.

BOMBARDED BRITAIN: A SEARCH FOR BRITISH IMPACT STRUCTURES

Copyright © 2004 by Imperial College Press
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to
be invented, without written permission from the Publisher.

For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center,
Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from
the publisher.

ISBN 1-86094-356-X

Typeset by Stallion Press

Printed by Fulsland Offset Printing (S) Pte Ltd, Singapore

This book is dedicated to the memory of
my beloved wife Sylvia, whose
enthusiasm and encouragement were
the main-spring of the work
This page is intentionally left blank
 Contents

Foreword vlii
Acknowledgements x

Part I. Impacts and Geology

1. A Curious Omission 3
2. Of Calculations and Craters 21
3. The Search for Impact Structures 31
4. The Shetland Craters 39
5. Midlands Geology 45
6. The Ashby Inlier 53
7. Charnwood Forest 60
8. The Midlands Basin — A Cometary Impact Structure? 65
9. The Herefordshire Domes 82
10. The Rochford Basin — A Digression into Essex 96
11. Fuller's Earth and Bagshot Sands — A Surrey Crater? 106
12. Gabbro, Granite, and Grampians 112
13. Other Circular Structures 124

Part II. Impacts in History

14. Small Craters, Airbursts, and Tsunami 139
15. Dozmary Pool and Other Craterlets 145
16. Levin-Bolt and Blast 153
17. British Atlantis? 162

Epilogue: The Silverpit Crater 175

Appendix 1 178
Appendix 2 193
Bibliography 195
Index 203
 Foreword

The last 40 years have seen a revolution in planetary science.

Unmanned and manned missions to the Moon, studies of impact
craters on Mars, Venus and Mercury and on the satellites of the
outer planets, and the discovery of a large population of near-
Earth asteroids have shown that impact cratering is an impor-
tant process, and for many bodies the dominant surface process,
throughout the solar system.
The recognition of large terrestrial impact structures and the
realisation that the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction was
almost certainly caused by the impact of an asteroid have shown
that impact processes are important for the geological and bio-
logical history of the Earth. About 200 terrestrial impact struc-
tures are now known, and these structures have been discovered
on every continent except Antarctica.
However, no impact structures have yet been identified in
Great Britain or Ireland. I have set out to remedy this omission
for Great Britain by searching for circular landforms and re-
examining their geology with explicit consideration of the impact
hypothesis. This research has sometimes required a re-assess-
ment of British geological history and of the actual formation of
impact structures. In particular, atmospheric break-up of aster-
oids and comets before they hit the ground may radically alter
the morphology of the resulting crater.
Observations by satellites and from the Earth's surface have
shown that large meteoric fireballs often explode in the atmos-
phere, and that these explosions can cause damage on the
Earth's surface. I have analysed the frequency of such events,
and suggest that damaging explosions may occur over the British
Isles on a time-scale of decades. There are a number of historical
records that may describe fireball explosions, some of which
have killed people, but many of these have been previously iden-
tified as thunderstorms, tornadoes, and even earthquakes.
Foreword m
Finally, I draw attention to the largely overlooked danger of
tsunami created by impacts in the oceans. In particular, if the
Carolina Bays of the south-eastern United States were produced
by a cometary impact in late glacial times, this impact would
have caused a tsunami tens of metres high on the western coasts
of Europe and the British Isles. The date of this event corre-
sponds to the date of the destruction of the legendary island of
Atlantis.
 Acknowledgements

My thanks and acknowledgements are due, first to Mr. Nic

Howes, who sent me the maps, diagrams and photographs of the
Woolhope and Hope Mansell domes that appear as Figure 6 and
Figures 8 to 12.
Thanks also to Bedfordshire Libraries for providing me with
information about the Stevington meteorite fall and for drawing
my attention to the Chilterns fireball of 1887. Also to Darlington
Library for their assistance in obtaining information about the
Hell's Kettles craters, to Gloucester Library for information about
the Coleford meteorite fall of 1946, to the Archive Service of the
Natural History Museum for information about the Tetbury
meteorite fall of 1929, to Sidmouth Library and the Sid Vale
Heritage Centre for information about the fireball of 1970, and to
Wells Library and the Somerset Studies Library (Taunton) for
details of the Wells fireball of 1596.
I should like to thank the anonymous referees for comments
that improved the organisation and layout of the book.
Finally, I cannot sufficiently express my gratitude to my wife
Sylvia for her encouragement and for her handling of correspon-
dence and of the business side of getting the book into print.
 Impacts
and Geology
This page is intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER

A Curious Omission

'I have not got housemaid's knee.

Why I have not got housemaid's knee,
I cannot tell you, but the fact remains that
I have not got it.
Jerome K. Jerome, Three Men in a Boat

The curious incident of the dog in the night-time.'

The dog did nothing in the night-time'
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Silver Blaze

In t h e nearly 6 0 y e a r s since t h e end of t h e Second World War,

there h a s b e e n a revolution in b o t h a s t r o n o m y a n d t h e E a r t h
sciences, a s t h e importance of i m p a c t cratering a s a p l a n e t a r y
process h a s come to be recognised.
In 1945 m a n y scientists believed t h a t the craters of the Moon
were of volcanic origin, a n d the few terrestrial meteorite craters
t h a t h a d been identified were regarded a s local curiosities rather
t h a n a s being geologically significant. There w a s some justification
for this attitude: Hey's (1966) catalogue of meteorite craters
included 18 craters t h a t were regarded a s authentic (the largest
being Deep Bay, Saskatchewan, with a diameter of 12 km), b u t
only 12 of these 18 craters h a d been recognised before 1945. These
12 craters were Aouelloul (Mauritania), Boxhole, Dalgaranga a n d
H e n b u r y (Australia), C a m p o del Cielo (Argentina), Haviland
H H H I
Part I: Impacts and Geology

(Kansas), Kaalijarv (Estonia), Meteor Crater (Arizona), Mount

Darwin (Tasmania), Odessa (Texas), Tunguska (Siberia), and
Wabar (Saudi Arabia). The largest of these craters was Meteor
Crater (now re-named Barringer Crater), with a diameter of 1.2km.
However, even as early as the end of the 19th century and the
beginning of the 20th, a few scientists were willing to accept a role
for impact cratering in both astronomy and geology. In particular
the American geologist Grove Karl Gilbert (1893), the Estonian
astronomer Ernst Opik (1916), and the German meteorologist
Alfred Wegener (1920) all advocated an impact hypothesis for the
origin of the craters of the Moon, even though their arguments
attracted little attention at the time.
The first terrestrial impact structure to be identified as such
was, of course, Meteor Crater (35°02'N, 111°01'W), where
A.E. Foote (1891) discovered large numbers of iron meteorites
that were clearly associated with a deep, circular and non-volcanic
depression. The impact interpretation for this crater was confirmed
beyond dispute by the undaunted efforts of Daniel Moreau
Barringer and E.M. Shoemaker (1928-97).
However, the first application of the impact hypothesis to a
really large terrestrial structure was the suggestion by Werner
(1904) that the Ries Kessel 1 (48°53'N, 10°37'E), a circular
depression in southern Germany with a diameter of 24 km, was
a meteorite crater. In 1910 A. Hogbom compared Lake Mien and
Lake Dellen, 2 in Sweden, to Meteor Crater, and suggested that
they were also impact craters (von Engelhardt, 1972). In 1921,
P. Eskola described supposedly volcanic rocks from Lake
Janisjarvi, 3 and pointed out that these rocks were very similar to
those of Lake Mien and Lake Dellen, and to those of Lake
Lappajarvi (63°10'N, 23°40'E), in Finland. Later, M. MacLaren
(1931) suggested that Lake Bosumtwi (6°32'N, 1°24'W), in

1
This structure is now called the Nordlinger Ries, or simply the Ries. The name
Ries Kessel means Giant Kettle.
^ h e impact melt rock 'dellenite' was regarded by Tyrrell (1950) as the type for
the volcanic rock rhyodacite. This shows how difficult it can be to distinguish
impact melts from volcanic rocks.
3
Janisjarvi (61°58'N, 30C55'E) is now in Russian Karelia; however, during the
1920s it was in eastern Finland. The word jarvi is the Finnish for 'lake'.
A Curious Omission m
Ghana, was an impact crater; and in 1936 F.E. Suess
and O. Stutzer separately suggested that Kofels Hollow (47°13'N,
10°58'E), a 4-km wide circular basin in the Otztal of the
Austrian Tirol, was a meteorite crater of late Pleistocene or even
Holocene age.
I should also mention a mysterious person named J. Kalkun
[alias J. Kaljuvee), apparently an Estonian, who in a 1933 work
entitled 'Die Grossprobleme der Geologic' ['The Main Problems of
Geology') suggested that the great Hungarian Plain was a mete-
orite crater. According to Baldwin (1963), Kalkun compared the
Kaalijarv craters in Estonia to Meteor Crater as early as 1922.
During the same period the Englishman William Comyns
Beaumont (1873-1956) argued that most if not all natural
disasters were due to meteorite impacts, and pointed to the
Sedgemoor basin in Somerset and the glacial lochs of the
Hebrides, the Orkneys and the Shetlands as examples of mete-
orite craters.
During the same period, a number of anomalous terrestrial
structures had been found that showed brecciation and faulting
without any obvious geological cause. The prototype of these
structures was the Steinheim Basin (48°42'N, 10°04'E), near
Heidenheim in south Germany; this basin was described by
Branca and Fraas (1905) and was called a 'crypto-volcanic struc-
ture.' W.H. Bucher (1933) described six similar structures in the
United States, namely Serpent Mound (Ohio), Jeptha Knob
(Kentucky), Upheaval Dome (Utah), Decaturville (Missouri), Wells
Creek (Tennessee), and Kentland (Indiana). Bucher (1936) later
added Hicks Dome (Illinois) and Crooked Creek (Missouri) to
this list.
These crypto-volcanic structures were characterised by a circu-
lar central uplift, a few kilometres in diameter, where concealed
sedimentary rocks had been tilted and uplifted by a few hundred
metres to be exposed at the surface, and had suffered faulting
and brecciation. The oldest rocks exposed in the uplift were in
the centre, and they were surrounded by successively younger
rocks, which dipped steeply outwards. (In some of the crypto-
volcanic structures the sedimentary rocks had actually been
overturned and therefore dipped inwards; however, these struc-
tures could be distinguished from ordinary synclines by the fact
D Part I: Impacts and Geology

that older rocks were exposed nearer to the centre.) Radial and
concentric faults were also present. In well-exposed structures,
the central uplift could be seen to be surrounded by a ring syn-
cline (called s j , which was in turn surrounded by a ring anticline
(called aY). In the Wells Creek Basin (36°23'N, 87°40'W), in
Tennessee, the ring anticline was encircled by an outer ring syn-
cline (s2), which was itself encircled by an outer ring anticline
(02), with a diameter of about 8.5 miles (13.6km). On geological
maps these crypto-volcanic structures appeared as circular
inliers of older rocks surrounded by concentric circular outcrops of
successively younger rocks; this concentric pattern was, however,
disturbed, and often disguised, by intense faulting.
When they were first discovered, these crypto-volcanic
structures were thought to have been produced by explosive out-
bursts of hot, high-pressure volcanic gases. However, in 1933
Rohleder suggested that the Steinheim Basin, the prototype of
these structures, was actually an impact crater. A few years later
Boon and Albritton (1938, 1942), in America, suggested that the
crypto-volcanic structures of Bucher (1933, 1936) were actually
the roots of eroded meteorite craters. Boon and Albritton argued
that the rocks under the crater would respond as a fluid to the
shock wave produced by the impact and explosion of a giant
meteorite, and that the geological structure created by the shock
would consist of a central uplift formed by the rebound of the
rock, encircled by concentric ring synclines and anticlines. These
features were exactly those observed in the 'crypto-volcanic
structures.' Boon and Albritton had, in fact, identified the
'crypto-volcanic structures' as complex impact structures, with
flat floors and central peaks, rather than simple bowl-shaped
craters like Meteor Crater. However, the distinction between the
two types of crater was not to be recognised for many more years.

European study of lunar and terrestrial impact craters was

checked by the man-made catastrophe of the Second World War,
and interest in the subject lapsed for nearly 20 years. Very few
papers were published about the Nordlinger Ries and the
Steinheim Basin during the 1940s and 1950s. The Swedish and
Finnish impact structures appear to have been almost forgotten,
and they were rediscovered only during the 1960s. Kofels Hollow
was likewise forgotten, in spite of its location in a popular tourist
area, and has received little serious attention since the war.
A Curious Omission MEM

In America, however, there was an increased interest in mete-

orites and impact craters. The impact hypothesis for the craters
of the Moon was at last put on a firm footing by R.B. Baldwin
(1949) in his book The Face of the Moon. Meanwhile, on Earth,
R.S. Dietz showed that the striated conical rock fractures called
shatter cones were indicators of high-pressure shocks that could
be produced only by meteorite impacts. These shatter cones had
been first discovered in the Steinheim Basin by Branca and
Fraas (1905), and Dietz and other geologists now proceeded to
find them in several of Bucher's crypto-volcanic structures. Dietz
himself found large shatter cones in the Kentland (Indiana)
structure in 1945; and shatter cones were later found in Wells
Creek, Flynn Creek, Decaturville, Crooked Creek, Serpent
Mound, and Sierra Madera (Texas). Outside the United States,
shatter cones were also found in 1961 in the huge Vredefort
crypto-volcanic structure (D= 140 km) in South Africa, confirm-
ing a suggestion by Daly (1947) that it was an impact structure.
In the light of these discoveries, and to avoid the suggestion that
they were volcanic, the 'crypto-volcanic structures' were renamed
'crypto-explosion structures.'
Another demonstration of the reality and the importance of
impact cratering came on February 12, 1947, when a large iron
meteorite broke up in the atmosphere over the Sikhote Alin
Mountains, north of Vladivostok, and fell as a hail of iron
masses, some of which weighed several tons. The largest intact
piece of this meteorite had a mass of 1.75 tons; larger pieces
broke up when they hit the ground. This meteorite produced
a field of 106 craters, the largest of which was 26.5 metres in
diameter.
The systematic search by C.S. Beals and his co-workers for
impact structures in Canada must also be mentioned. This search
yielded a large number of candidates, notably the Brent and
Holleford craters (Ontario), Deep Bay (Saskatchewan), Clearwater
Lakes and Lac Couture (Quebec), and West Hawk Lake (Manitoba).
It is partly as a result of this work that Canada can boast 26
authenticated impact structures (Grieve 1991, 1996).
In 1953 a new mineral called coesite, a dense, high-pressure
form of silica (SiOa), was created in the laboratory, and was
quickly recognised as a criterion for the identification of meteorite
 Part I: Impacts and Geology

craters. It was first found in nature in Meteor Crater (Chao et ah,

1960) and in the Ries (Shoemaker and Chao, 1961). Also in
1961, an even denser high-pressure form of Si0 2 , called
stishovite was produced; and this mineral was also found in both
Meteor Crater and the Ries.
Later in the 1960s a new indicator of impact shock was recog-
nised in the rocks of crypto-explosion structures. These were the
so-called planar deformation lamellae, microscopic fractures in
crystals of quartz and feldspar. According to Grieve (1987), these
fractures correspond to glide planes filled by solid-state glass.
These lamellae occur along specific crystallographic orientations,
and they form at shock pressures between 5 and 35GPa (50 to
350kbar). At higher shock pressures (30-45 GPa) the crystal
structure of minerals is destroyed, although the crystal habit is
retained, and the mineral is converted to diaplectic or thetomor-
phic glass. At still higher pressures (>45GPa) the rock is actu-
ally melted and forms sheets of impact melt, which has often
been mistaken for volcanic rock.
The identification of these mineralogical stigmata of impact
made it possible to identify impact structures with certainty, and
to measure the shock pressures reached in them.
Recognition of impact cratering as an important geological
process was also advanced by space missions to other planets.
The discovery by Mariner 4 in 1965 of craters on Mars took most
scientists by surprise; and, for my own part, I was astonished by
the close resemblance of the surface of Mercury (as observed by
Mariner 10) to the lunar surface. Missions farther afield, to the
satellites of the giant planets, showed that cratered planetary
surfaces were the rule. It became clear that in this respect the
Moon was typical of the solid bodies of the solar system and that
it was the almost uncratered surface of the Earth that was excep-
tional. As if photographs of cratered planetary surfaces were not
enough, the close approaches of the asteroid 1566 Icarus during
1968 and of many other asteroids since then provided immediate
reminders that impact cratering of planetary surfaces remains
an active process.
The advent of piloted space missions and of Earth surveillance
satellites led to the discovery of many new terrestrial impact
structures, which could be identified by their circular shape.
A Curious Omission HI
Some of these structures also showed a characteristic 'bull's-eye'
appearance due to the concentric outcrops of rock in and around
the central uplift. Examples of such structures were the
Araguainha Dome and Serra da Cangalha in Brazil, Aorounga in
Chad, and Gosses Bluff in Australia.
These new developments, the identification of circular struc-
tures on satellite images and the application of the mineralogical
criteria of impact shock, led to a rapid increase in the number of
known impact structures, which have now been identified in
every continent except Antarctica. Grieve (1987) listed 116
authenticated impact structures; the number had increased to
131 in Grieve (1991); and Grieve (1996) stated that 149 such
structures were known in 1995. The most recent list, compiled
by Fortes (2000), lists no fewer than 224 impact structures.
When one includes possible but not yet authenticated impact
structures the number is increased to more than 250. Classen
(1977) already listed 230 terrestrial impact structures, although
many of these have not yet been authenticated by detailed study.
Three particularly significant recent discoveries are Chicxulub,
in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico (D~ 180 km, age = 65Myr),
which was probably responsible for the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass
extinction; Chesapeake Bay (D~85km, age ~34Myr), which is
probably the source of the North American tektite strewn field4
(Poag et ah, 1994); and Lake Tonle Sap, in Cambodia (about
100km x 35km, age ~0.78Myr), which may be the source crater
of the Australasian tektites (Hartung & Koeberl, 1994). That three
such large craters, all <100Myr old and one forming the site of a
national capital, should be discovered in the last 20 years, indi-
cates both that there are many more such structures waiting to
be discovered and that impact rates calculated in the 1980s are
likely to be underestimates.
The Earth's impact structures range in size from mere frag-
mentation pits like Dalgaranga (Australia), Haviland (Kansas)
and Tannas (Sweden), which could almost fit into a suburban
back garden, to vast structures like Chicxulub, Sudbury and
Vredefort, which are larger than Wales. They range in age from

4
It has been suggested that the Everglades in Florida mark the site of an even
larger impact structure of the same age, with D~ 120-130 km.
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