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DK1212_title 6/10/05 9:46 AM Page 1

Medical Image
Processing,
Reconstruction
and Restoration
Concepts and Methods

Jiří Jan

Boca Raton London New York Singapore

A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DK1212_series.qxd 6/10/05 9:52 AM Page 1

Signal Processing and Communications

Editorial Board

Maurice G. Bellanger, Conservatoire National

des Arts et Métiers (CNAM), Paris
Ezio Biglieri, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
Sadaoki Furui, Tokyo Institute of Technology
Yih-Fang Huang, University of Notre Dame
Nikil Jayant, Georgia Institute of Technology
Aggelos K. Katsaggelos, Northwestern University
Mos Kaveh, University of Minnesota
P. K. Raja Rajasekaran, Texas Instruments
John Aasted Sorenson, IT University of Copenhagen

1. Digital Signal Processing for Multimedia Systems, edited by Keshab K. Parhi

and Takao Nishitani
2. Multimedia Systems, Standards, and Networks, edited by Atul Puri
and Tsuhan Chen
3. Embedded Multiprocessors: Scheduling and Synchronization, Sundararajan Sriram
and Shuvra S. Bhattacharyya
4. Signal Processing for Intelligent Sensor Systems, David C. Swanson
5. Compressed Video over Networks, edited by Ming-Ting Sun and Amy R. Reibman
6. Modulated Coding for Intersymbol Interference Channels, Xiang-Gen Xia
7. Digital Speech Processing, Synthesis, and Recognition: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Sadaoki Furui
8. Modern Digital Halftoning, Daniel L. Lau and Gonzalo R. Arce
9. Blind Equalization and Identification, Zhi Ding and Ye (Geoffrey) Li
10. Video Coding for Wireless Communication Systems, King N. Ngan, Chi W. Yap,
and Keng T. Tan
11. Adaptive Digital Filters: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Maurice G. Bellanger
12. Design of Digital Video Coding Systems, Jie Chen, Ut-Va Koc, and K. J. Ray Liu
13. Programmable Digital Signal Processors: Architecture, Programming,
and Applications, edited by Yu Hen Hu
14. Pattern Recognition and Image Preprocessing: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Sing-Tze Bow
15. Signal Processing for Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Spectroscopy,
edited by Hong Yan

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DK1212_series.qxd 6/10/05 9:52 AM Page 2

16. Satellite Communication Engineering, Michael O. Kolawole

17. Speech Processing: A Dynamic and Optimization-Oriented Approach, Li Deng
18. Multidimensional Discrete Unitary Transforms: Representation: Partitioning
and Algorithms, Artyom M. Grigoryan, Sos S. Agaian, S.S. Agaian
19. High-Resolution and Robust Signal Processing, Yingbo Hua, Alex B. Gershman
and Qi Cheng
20. Domain-Specific Processors: Systems, Architectures, Modeling, and Simulation,
Shuvra Bhattacharyya; Ed Deprettere; Jurgen Teich
21. Watermarking Systems Engineering: Enabling Digital Assets Security
and Other Applications, Mauro Barni, Franco Bartolini
22. Biosignal and Biomedical Image Processing: MATLAB-Based Applications,
John L. Semmlow
23. Broadband Last Mile Technologies: Access Technologies for Multimedia
Communications, edited by Nikil Jayant
24. Image Processing Technologies: Algorithms, Sensors, and Applications,
edited by Kiyoharu Aizawa, Katsuhiko Sakaue and Yasuhito Suenaga
25. Medical Image Processing, Reconstruction and Restoration: Concepts
and Methods, Jiří Jan
26. Multi-Sensor Image Fusion and Its Applications, edited by Rick Blum
and Zheng Liu
27. Advanced Image Processing in Magnetic Resonance Imaging, edited by
Luigi Landini, Vincenzo Positano and Maria Santarelli

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DK1212_Discl.fm Page 1 Friday, September 30, 2005 8:00 AM

Published in 2006 by
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8247-5849-8 (Hardcover)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8247-5849-3 (Hardcover)
Library of Congress Card Number 2004063503
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is
quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.
No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic,
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Jan, Jirí.
Medical image processing, reconstruction and restoration : concepts and methods / by Jirí Jan.
p . cm. -- (Signal processing and communications ; 24)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8247-5849-8 (alk. paper)
1. Diagnostic imaging--Digital techniques. I. Title. II. Series.

RC78.7.D53J36 2005
616.07'54--dc22 2004063503

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DK1212_C000.fm Page v Monday, October 3, 2005 4:56 PM

Preface

Beginning with modest initial attempts in roughly the 1960s, digital

image processing has become a recognized field of science, as well
as a broadly accepted methodology, to solve practical problems in
many different kinds of human activities. The applications encom-
pass an enormous range, starting perhaps with astronomy, geology,
and physics, via medical, biological, and ecological imaging and
technological exploitation, up to the initially unexpected use in
humane sciences, e.g., archaeology or art history. The results
obtained in the area of digital image acquisition, synthesis, process-
ing, and analysis are impressive, though it is often not generally
known that digital methods have been applied. The basic concepts
and theory are, of course, common to the spectrum of applications,
but some aspects are more emphasized and some less in each par-
ticular application field. This book, besides introducing general prin-
ciples and methods, concentrates on applications in the field of
medical imaging, which is specific for at least two features: biomed-
ical imaging often concerns internal structures of living organisms
inaccessible to standard imaging methods, and the resulting images
are observed, evaluated, and classified mostly by nontechnically
oriented staff.

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vi Jan

The first feature means that rather specific imaging methods,

namely, tomographic modalities, had to be developed that are
entirely dependent on digital processing of measured preimage data
and that utilize rather sophisticated theoretical backgrounds stem-
ming from the advanced signal theory. Therefore, development of
new or innovated image processing approaches, as well as interpre-
tation of more complicated or unexpected results, requires a deep
understanding of the underlying theory and methods.
Excellent theoretical books on general image processing meth-
ods are available, some of them mentioned in references. In the
area of medical imaging, many books oriented toward individual
clinical branches have been published, mostly with medically inter-
preted case studies. Technical publications on modality-oriented
specialized methods are frequent, either as original journal papers
and conference proceedings or as edited books, contributed to by
numerous specialized authors and summarizing recent contribu-
tions to a particular field of medical image processing. However,
there may be a niche for books that would respect the particularities
of biomedical orientation while still providing a consistent, theo-
retically reasonably exact, and yet comprehensible explanation of
the underlying theoretical concepts and principles of methods of
image processing as applied in the broad medical field and other
application fields.
This book is intended as an attempt in this direction. It is the
author’s persuasion that a good understanding of concepts and prin-
ciples forms a necessary basis to any valid methodology and solid
application. It is relatively easy to continue studying and even
designing specialized advanced approaches with such a background;
on the other hand, it is extremely difficult to grasp a sophisticated
method without well understanding the underlying concepts. Inves-
tigating a well-defined theory from the background also makes the
study enjoyable; even this aspect was in the foundation of the con-
cept of the book.
This is a book primarily for a technically oriented audience, e.g.,
staff members from the medical environment, interdisciplinary
experts of different (not necessarily only biomedical) orientations, and
graduate and postgraduate engineering students. The purpose of the
book is to provide insight; this determines the way the material is
treated: the rigorous mathematical treatment — definition, lemma,
proof — has been abandoned in favor of continuous explanation, in
which most results and conclusions are consistently derived, though
the derivation is contained (and sometimes perhaps even hidden)

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Preface vii

in the text. The aim is that the reader becomes familiar with the
explained concepts and principles, and acquires the idea of not only
believing the conclusions, but also checking and interpreting every
result himself, though perhaps with informal reasoning. It is also
important that all the results would be interpreted in terms of their
“physical” meaning. This does not mean that they be related to a
concrete physical parameter, but rather that they are reasonably inter-
preted with the purpose of the applied processing in mind, e.g., in
terms of information or spectral content. The selection of the material
in the book was based on the idea of including the established back-
ground without becoming mathematically or theoretically superficial,
while possibly eliminating unnecessary details or too specialized infor-
mation that, moreover, may have a rather time-limited validity.
Though the book was primarily conceived with the engineering
community of readers in mind, it should not be unreadable to tech-
nically inclined biomedical experts. It is, of course, possible to suc-
cessfully exploit the image processing methods in clinical practice
or scientific research without becoming involved in the processing
principles. The implementation of imaging modalities must be
adapted to this standard situation by providing an environment in
which the nontechnical expert would not feel the image processing
to be a strange or even hostile element. However, the interpretation
of the image results, namely, in more involved cases, as well as the
indication of suitable image processing procedures under more com-
plex circumstances, may be supported by the user’s understanding
of the processing concepts. It is therefore a side ambition of this
book to be comprehensible enough to enable appreciation of the
principles, perhaps without derivations, even by a differently ori-
ented expert, should he be interested.
It should also be stated what the book is not intended to be.
It does not discuss the medical interpretation of the image results;
no casuistic analysis is included. Concerning the technical contents,
it is also not a theoretical in-depth monograph on a highly special-
ized theme that would not be understandable to a technically or
mathematically educated user of the imaging methods or a similarly
oriented graduate student; such specialized publications may be
found among the references. Finally, while the book may be helpful
even as a daily reference to concepts and methods, it is not a manual
on application details and does not refer to any particular program,
system, or implementation.
The content of the book has been divided into three parts.
The first part, “Images as Multidimensional Signals,” provides the

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viii Jan

introductory chapters on the basic image processing theory. The

second part, “Imaging Systems as Data Sources,” is intended as
an alternative view on the imaging modalities. While the physical
principles are limited to the extent necessary to explain the imag-
ing properties, the emphasis is put on analyzing the internal
signals and (pre)image data that are to be consequently processed.
With respect to this goal, the technological solutions and details
of the imaging systems are also omitted. The third part, “Image
Processing and Analysis,” starts with tomographic image recon-
struction, which is of fundamental importance in medical imaging.
Another topical theme of medical imaging is image fusion, includ-
ing multimodal image registration. Further, methods of image
enhancement and restoration are treated in individual chapters.
The next chapter is devoted to image analysis, including segmen-
tation, as a preparation for diagnostics. The concluding chapter,
on the image processing environment, briefly comments on hard-
ware and software exploited in medical imaging and on processing
aspects of image archiving and communication, including princi-
ples of image data compression.
With respect to the broad spectrum of potential readers, the
book was designed to be as self-contained as possible. Though back-
ground in signal theory would be advantageous, it is not necessary,
as the basic terms are briefly explained where needed. Each part
of the book is provided with a list of references, containing the
literature used as sources or recommended for further study. Cita-
tion of numerous original works, though their influence and contri-
bution to the medical imaging field are highly appreciated, was
mostly avoided as superfluous in this type of book, unless these
works served as immediate sources or examples.
The author hopes that (in spite of some ever-present oversights
and omissions) the reader will find the book’s content to be consistent
and interesting, and studying it intellectually rewarding. If the basic
knowledge contained within becomes a key to solving practical appli-
cation problems and to informed interpretation of results, or a start-
ing point to investigating more advanced approaches and methods,
the book’s intentions will have been fulfilled.
Jir̆í Jan
Brno, Czech Republic

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DK1212_C000.fm Page ix Monday, October 3, 2005 4:56 PM

Acknowledgments

This book is partly based on courses on basic and advanced digital

image processing methods, offered for almost 20 years to graduate
and Ph.D. students of electronics and informatics at Brno University
of Technology. A part of these courses has always been oriented toward
biomedical applications. Here I express thanks to all colleagues and
students, with whom discussions often led to a better view of indi-
vidual problems. In this respect, the comments of the book reviewer,
Dr. S.M. Krishnan, Nanyang Technological University Singapore,
have also been highly appreciated.
Most of medical images presented as illustrations or used as
material in the derived figures have been kindly provided by the coop-
erating hospitals and their staffs: the Faculty Hospital of St. Anne Brno
(Assoc. Prof. P. Krupa, M.D., Ph.D.), the Faculty Hospital Brno-Bohu-
nice (Assoc. Prof. J. Prasek, M.D., Ph.D.; Assoc. Prof. V. Chaloupka,
M.D., Ph.D., Assist. Prof. R. Gerychova, M.D.), Masaryk Memorial
Cancer Institute Brno (Karel Bolcak, M.D.), Institute of Scientific
Instruments, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic (Assoc. Prof.
M. Kasal, Ph.D.), and Brno University of Technology (Assoc. Prof. A.
Drastich, Ph.D., D. Janova, M.Sc.). Their courtesy is highly appreci-
ated. Recognition notices are only placed with figures that contain

ix

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DK1212_C000.fm Page x Monday, October 3, 2005 4:56 PM

x Jan

original medical images; they are not repeated with figures where
these images serve as material to be processed or analyzed. Thanks
also belong to former doctoral students V. Jan, Ph.D., and R. Jirik,
Ph.D., who provided most of the drawn and derived-image figures.
The book utilizes as illustrations of the described methods,
among others, some results of the research conducted by the group
headed by the author. Support of the related projects by grant no.
102/02/0890 of the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic, by grants
no. CEZ MSM 262200011 and CEZ MS 0021630513 of the Ministry
of Education of the Czech Republic, and also by the research centre
grant 1M6798555601 is acknowledged.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Contents

PART I Images as Multidimensional

Signals .............................................. 1

Chapter 1 Analogue (Continuous-Space)

Image Representation ........................................... 3
1.1 Multidimensional Signals as Image Representation.............. 3
1.1.1 General Notion of Multidimensional Signals............. 3
1.1.2 Some Important Two-Dimensional Signals ................ 6
1.2 Two-Dimensional Fourier Transform....................................... 9
1.2.1 Forward Two-Dimensional Fourier Transform........... 9
1.2.2 Inverse Two-Dimensional Fourier Transform .......... 13
1.2.3 Physical Interpretation of the Two-Dimensional
Fourier Transform ...................................................... 14
1.2.4 Properties of the Two-Dimensional
Fourier Transform ...................................................... 16
1.3 Two-Dimensional Continuous-Space Systems ...................... 19
1.3.1 The Notion of Multidimensional Systems ................ 19
1.3.2 Linear Two-Dimensional Systems:
Original-Domain Characterization............................ 22

xi

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xii Jan

1.3.3 Linear Two-Dimensional Systems:

Frequency-Domain Characterization ........................ 25
1.3.4 Nonlinear Two-Dimensional
Continuous-Space Systems ........................................ 26
1.3.4.1 Point Operators .......................................... 27
1.3.4.2 Homomorphic Systems .............................. 29
1.4 Concept of Stochastic Images ................................................. 33
1.4.1 Stochastic Fields as Generators
of Stochastic Images................................................... 34
1.4.2 Correlation and Covariance Functions ..................... 38
1.4.3 Homogeneous and Ergodic Fields ............................. 41
1.4.4 Two-Dimensional Spectra of Stochastic
Images ......................................................................... 45
1.4.4.1 Power Spectra ............................................ 45
1.4.4.2 Cross-Spectra ............................................. 47
1.4.5 Transfer of Stochastic Images via
Two-Dimensional Linear Systems ............................ 49
1.4.6 Linear Estimation of Stochastic Variables ............... 51

Chapter 2 Digital Image Representation ........................... 55

2.1 Digital Image Representation ................................................ 55
2.1.1 Sampling and Digitizing Images............................... 55
2.1.1.1 Sampling..................................................... 55
2.1.1.2 Digitization ................................................. 62
2.1.2 Image Interpolation from Samples ........................... 65
2.2 Discrete Two-Dimensional Operators .................................... 67
2.2.1 Discrete Linear Two-Dimensional Operators........... 69
2.2.1.1 Generic Operators...................................... 69
2.2.1.2 Separable Operators .................................. 70
2.2.1.3 Local Operators......................................... 71
2.2.1.4 Convolutional Operators .......................... 74
2.2.2 Nonlinear Two-Dimensional Discrete Operators ..... 77
2.2.2.1 Point Operators .......................................... 77
2.2.2.2 Homomorphic Operators ........................... 78
2.2.2.3 Order Statistics Operators ........................ 79
2.2.2.4 Neuronal Operators ................................... 81
2.3 Discrete Two-Dimensional Linear Transforms ..................... 89
2.3.1 Two-Dimensional Unitary
Transforms Generally ................................................ 91

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Contents xiii

2.3.2 Two-Dimensional Discrete Fourier

and Related Transforms............................................. 94
2.3.2.1 Two-Dimensional DFT Definition............. 94
2.3.2.2 Physical Interpretation
of Two-Dimensional DFT .......................... 95
2.3.2.3 Relation of Two-Dimensional DFT
to Two-Dimensional Integral FT
and Its Applications in Spectral
Analysis ...................................................... 99
2.3.2.4 Properties of the
Two-Dimensional DFT............................. 101
2.3.2.5 Frequency Domain Convolution ............. 105
2.3.2.6 Two-Dimensional Cosine, Sine,
and Hartley Transforms .......................... 107
2.3.3 Two-Dimensional Hadamard–Walsh
and Haar Transforms............................................... 111
2.3.3.1 Two-Dimensional Hadamard–Walsh
Transform ................................................. 111
2.3.3.2 Two-Dimensional Haar Transform......... 112
2.3.4 Two-Dimensional Discrete
Wavelet Transforms.................................................. 116
2.3.4.1 Two-Dimensional Continuous
Wavelet Transforms ................................. 116
2.3.4.2 Two-Dimensional Dyadic
Wavelet Transforms ................................. 120
2.3.5 Two-Dimensional Discrete Karhunen–Loeve
Transform.................................................................. 122
2.4 Discrete Stochastic Images ................................................... 125
2.4.1 Discrete Stochastic Fields as Generators
of Stochastic Images................................................. 126
2.4.2 Discrete Correlation and Covariance
Functions................................................................... 127
2.4.3 Discrete Homogeneous and Ergodic
Fields ......................................................................... 128
2.4.4 Two-Dimensional Spectra of Stochastic
Images ....................................................................... 130
2.4.4.1 Power Spectra .......................................... 130
2.4.4.2 Discrete Cross-Spectra ............................ 131
2.4.5 Transfer of Stochastic Images via
Discrete Two-Dimensional Systems ........................ 131
References for Part I...................................................................... 133

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xiv Jan

PART II Imaging Systems as

Data Sources ............................... 135

Chapter 3 Planar X-Ray Imaging ....................................... 137

3.1 X-Ray Projection Radiography ............................................. 137
3.1.1 Basic Imaging Geometry.......................................... 137
3.1.2 Source of Radiation .................................................. 139
3.1.3 Interaction of X-Rays with Imaged Objects ........... 143
3.1.4 Image Detection........................................................ 146
3.1.5 Postmeasurement Data Processing
in Projection Radiography ....................................... 150
3.2 Subtractive Angiography ...................................................... 152

Chapter 4 X-Ray Computed Tomography......................... 155

4.1 Imaging Principle and Geometry ......................................... 155
4.1.1 Principle of a Slice Projection Measurement ......... 155
4.1.2 Variants of Measurement Arrangement ................. 158
4.2 Measuring Considerations .................................................... 164
4.2.1 Technical Equipment................................................ 164
4.2.2 Attenuation Scale ..................................................... 165
4.3 Imaging Properties ................................................................ 166
4.3.1 Spatial Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional
Resolution and Contrast Resolution ....................... 166
4.3.2 Imaging Artifacts...................................................... 167
4.4 Postmeasurement Data Processing
in Computed Tomography..................................................... 172

Chapter 5 Magnetic Resonance Imaging.......................... 177

5.1 Magnetic Resonance Phenomena ......................................... 178
5.1.1 Magnetization of Nuclei ........................................... 178
5.1.2 Stimulated NMR Response and Free
Induction Decay ........................................................ 181
5.1.3 Relaxation ................................................................. 184
5.1.3.1 Chemical Shift and Flow Influence ........ 187
5.2 Response Measurement and Interpretation........................ 188
5.2.1 Saturation Recovery (SR) Techniques..................... 189
5.2.2 Spin-Echo Techniques .............................................. 191
5.2.3 Gradient-Echo Techniques ....................................... 196
5.3 Basic MRI Arrangement ....................................................... 198

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Contents xv

5.4 Localization and Reconstruction of Image Data................. 201

5.4.1 Gradient Fields ......................................................... 201
5.4.2 Spatially Selective Excitation.................................. 203
5.4.3 RF Signal Model and General Background
for Localization ......................................................... 206
5.4.4 One-Dimensional Frequency Encoding:
Two-Dimensional Reconstruction
from Projections........................................................ 211
5.4.5 Two-Dimensional Reconstruction
via Frequency and Phase Encoding ........................ 216
5.4.6 Three-Dimensional Reconstruction
via Frequency and Double Phase Encoding ........... 221
5.4.7 Fast MRI ................................................................... 223
5.4.7.1 Multiple-Slice Imaging ............................ 224
5.4.7.2 Low Flip-Angle Excitation ...................... 224
5.4.7.3 Multiple-Echo Acquisition ....................... 225
5.4.7.4 Echo-Planar Imaging ............................... 227
5.5 Image Quality and Artifacts................................................. 231
5.5.1 Noise Properties ....................................................... 231
5.5.2 Image Parameters .................................................... 233
5.5.3 Point-Spread Function ............................................. 235
5.5.4 Resolving Power........................................................ 237
5.5.5 Imaging Artifacts...................................................... 237
5.6 Postmeasurement Data Processing in MRI ........................ 239

Chapter 6 Nuclear Imaging.................................................. 245

6.1 Planar Gamma Imaging ....................................................... 247
6.1.1 Gamma Detectors and Gamma Camera................. 249
6.1.2 Inherent Data Processing
and Imaging Properties ........................................... 254
6.1.2.1 Data Localization and System
Resolution ................................................ 254
6.1.2.2 Total Response Evaluation
and Scatter Rejection ............................. 257
6.1.2.3 Data Postprocessing ............................... 258
6.2 Single-Photon Emission Tomography .................................. 258
6.2.1 Principle .................................................................... 258
6.2.2 Deficiencies of SPECT Principle
and Possibilities of Cure .......................................... 259
6.3 Positron Emission Tomography ............................................ 265
6.3.1 Principles of Measurement ...................................... 265

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DK1212_C000.fm Page xvi Monday, October 3, 2005 4:56 PM

xvi Jan

6.3.2 Imaging Arrangements ............................................ 270

6.3.3 Postprocessing of Raw Data
and Imaging Properties ........................................... 274
6.3.3.1 Attenuation Correction............................ 274
6.3.3.2 Random Coincidences .............................. 275
6.3.3.3 Scattered Coincidences ............................ 277
6.3.3.4 Dead-Time Influence................................ 278
6.3.3.5 Resolution Issues ..................................... 278
6.3.3.6 Ray Normalization ................................... 280
6.3.3.7 Comparison of PET and SPECT
Modalities ................................................. 282

Chapter 7 Ultrasonography ................................................. 283

7.1 Two-Dimensional Echo Imaging .......................................... 285
7.1.1 Echo Measurement................................................... 285
7.1.1.1 Principle of Echo Measurement.............. 285
7.1.1.2 Ultrasonic Transducers ........................... 287
7.1.1.3 Ultrasound Propagation
and Interaction with Tissue.................... 293
7.1.1.4 Echo Signal Features
and Processing ......................................... 296
7.1.2 B-Mode Imaging ....................................................... 301
7.1.2.1 Two-Dimensional Scanning Methods
and Transducers....................................... 301
7.1.2.2 Format Conversion................................... 305
7.1.2.3 Two-Dimensional Image Properties
and Processing ......................................... 307
7.1.2.4 Contrast Imaging and Harmonic
Imaging..................................................... 310
7.2 Flow Imaging ......................................................................... 313
7.2.1 Principles of Flow Measurement............................. 313
7.2.1.1 Doppler Blood Velocity Measurement
(Narrowband Approach) .......................... 313
7.2.1.2 Cross-Correlation Blood Velocity
Measurement (Wideband Approach) ...... 318
7.2.2 Color Flow Imaging .................................................. 320
7.2.2.1 Autocorrelation-Based Doppler
Imaging..................................................... 320
7.2.2.2 Movement Estimation Imaging .............. 324
7.2.2.3 Contrast-Based Flow Imaging ................ 324
7.2.2.4 Postprocessing of Flow Images ............... 325

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DK1212_C000.fm Page xvii Monday, October 3, 2005 4:56 PM

Contents xvii

7.3 Three-Dimensional Ultrasonography................................... 325

7.3.1 Three-Dimensional Data Acquisition...................... 326
7.3.1.1 Two-Dimensional Scan-Based
Data Acquisition....................................... 326
7.3.1.2 Three-Dimensional Transducer
Principles .................................................. 329
7.3.2 Three-Dimensional and Four-Dimensional
Data Postprocessing and Display............................ 331
7.3.2.1 Data Block Compilation .......................... 331
7.3.2.2 Display of Three-Dimensional Data ....... 333

Chapter 8 Other Modalities ................................................. 335

8.1 Optical and Infrared Imaging .............................................. 335
8.1.1 Three-Dimensional Confocal Imaging .................... 337
8.1.2 Infrared Imaging ...................................................... 339
8.2 Electron Microscopy .............................................................. 341
8.2.1 Scattering Phenomena in the Specimen
Volume....................................................................... 342
8.2.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy ......................... 343
8.2.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy................................. 346
8.2.4 Postprocessing of EM Images .................................. 349
8.3 Electrical Impedance Tomography ....................................... 350
References for Part II .................................................................... 355

PART III Image Processing

and Analysis ............................ 361

Chapter 9 Reconstructing Tomographic Images............ 365

9.1 Reconstruction from Near-Ideal Projections ....................... 366
9.1.1 Representation of Images by Projections ............... 366
9.1.2 Algebraic Methods of Reconstruction ..................... 372
9.1.2.1 Discrete Formulation of the
Reconstruction Problem........................... 372
9.1.2.2 Iterative Solution ..................................... 374
9.1.2.3 Reprojection Interpretation of the
Iteration .................................................... 375
9.1.2.4 Simplified Reprojection Iteration............ 379
9.1.2.5 Other Iterative Reprojection
Approaches ............................................... 380

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DK1212_C000.fm Page xviii Monday, October 3, 2005 4:56 PM

xviii Jan

9.1.3 Reconstruction via Frequency Domain ................... 381

9.1.3.1 Projection Slice Theorem......................... 381
9.1.3.2 Frequency-Domain Reconstruction......... 382
9.1.4 Reconstruction from Parallel Projections
by Filtered Back-Projection ..................................... 383
9.1.4.1 Underlying Theory ................................... 383
9.1.4.2 Practical Aspects ...................................... 387
9.1.5 Reconstruction from Fan Projections ...................... 391
9.1.5.1 Rebinning and Interpolation................... 393
9.1.5.2 Weighted Filtered Back-Projection ......... 393
9.1.5.3 Algebraic Methods of Reconstruction ...... 397
9.2 Reconstruction from Nonideal Projections .......................... 398
9.2.1 Reconstruction under Nonzero Attenuation........... 398
9.2.1.1 SPECT Type Imaging .............................. 400
9.2.1.2 PET Type Imaging................................... 402
9.2.2 Reconstruction from Stochastic Projections ........... 403
9.2.2.1 Stochastic Models of Projections............. 404
9.2.2.2 Principle of Maximum-Likelihood
Reconstruction.......................................... 406
9.3 Other Approaches to Tomographic Reconstruction............. 409
9.3.1 Image Reconstruction in Magnetic
Resonance Imaging................................................... 409
9.3.1.1 Projection-Based Reconstruction ............ 409
9.3.1.2 Frequency-Domain (Fourier)
Reconstruction.......................................... 410
9.3.2 Image Reconstruction in Ultrasonography............. 413
9.3.2.1 Reflective (Response)
Ultrasonography ...................................... 413
9.3.2.2 Transmission Ultrasonography............... 414

Chapter 10 Image Fusion ....................................................... 417

10.1 Ways to Consistency.............................................................. 419
10.1.1 Geometrical Image Transformations ...................... 422
10.1.1.1 Rigid Transformations............................. 423
10.1.1.2 Flexible Transformations ........................ 425
10.1.1.3 Piece-Wise Transformations.................... 431
10.1.2 Image Interpolation.................................................. 433
10.1.2.1 Interpolation in the Spatial Domain...... 435
10.1.2.2 Spatial Interpolation via
Frequency Domain................................... 441

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DK1212_C000.fm Page xix Monday, October 3, 2005 4:56 PM

Contents xix

10.1.3 Local Similarity Criteria.......................................... 443

10.1.3.1 Direct Intensity-Based
Criteria ..................................................... 444
10.1.3.2 Information-Based Criteria..................... 451
10.2 Disparity Analysis ................................................................. 460
10.2.1 Disparity Evaluation ................................................ 461
10.2.1.1 Disparity Definition and Evaluation
Approaches ............................................... 461
10.2.1.2 Nonlinear Matched Filters as Sources
of Similarity Maps ................................... 464
10.2.2 Computation and Representation
of Disparity Maps ..................................................... 467
10.2.2.1 Organization of the Disparity
Map Computation .................................... 467
10.2.2.2 Display and Interpretation
of Disparity Maps .................................... 468
10.3 Image Registration ................................................................ 470
10.3.1 Global Similarity ...................................................... 471
10.3.1.1 Intensity-Based Global Criteria.............. 472
10.3.1.2 Point-Based Global Criteria .................... 474
10.3.1.3 Surface-Based Global Criteria ................ 474
10.3.2 Transform Identification and Registration
Procedure .................................................................. 475
10.3.2.1 Direct Computation ................................. 476
10.3.2.2 Optimization Approaches ........................ 477
10.3.3 Registration Evaluation and Approval ................... 479
10.4 Image Fusion ......................................................................... 481
10.4.1 Image Subtraction and Addition ............................. 481
10.4.2 Vector-Valued Images ............................................... 483
10.4.2.1 Presentation of Vector-Valued
Images....................................................... 484
10.4.3 Three-Dimensional Data
from Two-Dimensional Slices .................................. 485
10.4.4 Panorama Fusion...................................................... 486
10.4.5 Stereo Surface Reconstruction................................. 486
10.4.6 Time Development Analysis .................................... 488
10.4.6.1 Time Development via Disparity
Analysis .................................................... 490
10.4.6.2 Time Development via Optical
Flow........................................................... 490
10.4.7 Fusion-Based Image Restoration ............................ 494

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DK1212_C000.fm Page xx Monday, October 3, 2005 4:56 PM

xx Jan

Chapter 11 Image Enhancement .......................................... 495

11.1 Contrast Enhancement ......................................................... 496
11.1.1 Piece-Wise Linear Contrast Adjustments............... 499
11.1.2 Nonlinear Contrast Transforms .............................. 501
11.1.3 Histogram Equalization ........................................... 504
11.1.4 Pseudocoloring .......................................................... 508
11.2 Sharpening and Edge Enhancement ................................... 510
11.2.1 Discrete Difference Operators ................................. 511
11.2.2 Local Sharpening Operators.................................... 517
11.2.3 Sharpening via Frequency Domain ........................ 519
11.2.4 Adaptive Sharpening................................................ 523
11.3 Noise Suppression ................................................................. 525
11.3.1 Narrowband Noise Suppression .............................. 527
11.3.2 Wideband “Gray” Noise Suppression ...................... 528
11.3.2.1 Adaptive Wideband Noise
Smoothing................................................. 532
11.3.3 Impulse Noise Suppression ..................................... 534
11.4 Geometrical Distortion Correction ....................................... 538

Chapter 12 Image Restoration .............................................. 539

12.1 Correction of Intensity Distortions ...................................... 541
12.1.1 Global Corrections .................................................... 541
12.1.2 Field Homogenization .............................................. 543
12.1.2.1 Homomorphic Illumination Correction..... 545
12.2 Geometrical Restitution ........................................................ 545
12.3 Inverse Filtering .................................................................... 546
12.3.1 Blur Estimation ........................................................ 546
12.3.1.1 Analytical Derivation of PSF .................. 547
12.3.1.2 Experimental PSF Identification............ 548
12.3.2 Identification of Noise Properties............................ 552
12.3.3 Actual Inverse Filtering........................................... 554
12.3.3.1 Plain Inverse Filtering ............................ 554
12.3.3.2 Modified Inverse Filtering....................... 555
12.4 Restoration Methods Based on Optimization ..................... 559
12.4.1 Image Restoration as Constrained
Optimization ............................................................. 559
12.4.2 Least Mean Square Error Restoration ................... 561
12.4.2.1 Formalized Concept of LMS
Image Estimation..................................... 561
12.4.2.2 Classical Formulation of Wiener
Filtering for Continuous-Space Images .... 563

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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