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The Paths of Creation explores the idea of creativity both in science and in art.

Sixto Castro & Alfredo Marcos (eds.) The Paths of Creation

Peter Lang
The editors have collected papers from different philosophers working on philosophy
of science and aesthetics to show that the creative processes of science and art share
identical procedures: metaphor, ruled method, analogy, abduction, similarity. They are
both surrounded by emotions, contain inspirations, proceed through revolutions that
maintain some kind of continuity, and have a long common history in which no one
worried about whether something was science or art. The purpose of this volume is to
show that there are no different rationalities applied to science and art, but the same
human reason developing in different forms to create not just different disciplines, but
different worlds as well.

natur, wissenschaft und die künste nature, science et les arts nature, science and the arts

Sixto Castro is Professor of Aesthetics at the University of Valladolid, Spain. He works

mainly on Philosophy of Art and Philosophy of Religion.
Sixto Castro & Alfredo Marcos (eds.)
Alfredo Marcos is full Professor of Philosophy of Science at the University of
Valladolid, Spain. He works mainly on general Philosophy of Science, of Biology and
of Information and Aristotelian Studies. The Paths of Creation

Creativity in Science and Art

Peter Lang

ISBN 978-3-0343-0511-2

www.peterlang.com
The Paths of Creation explores the idea of creativity both in science and in art.

Sixto Castro & Alfredo Marcos (eds.) The Paths of Creation

Peter Lang
The editors have collected papers from different philosophers working on philosophy
of science and aesthetics to show that the creative processes of science and art share
identical procedures: metaphor, ruled method, analogy, abduction, similarity. They are
both surrounded by emotions, contain inspirations, proceed through revolutions that
maintain some kind of continuity, and have a long common history in which no one
worried about whether something was science or art. The purpose of this volume is to
show that there are no different rationalities applied to science and art, but the same
human reason developing in different forms to create not just different disciplines, but
different worlds as well.

natur, wissenschaft und die künste nature, science et les arts nature, science and the arts

Sixto Castro is Professor of Aesthetics at the University of Valladolid, Spain. He works

mainly on Philosophy of Art and Philosophy of Religion.
Sixto Castro & Alfredo Marcos (eds.)
Alfredo Marcos is full Professor of Philosophy of Science at the University of
Valladolid, Spain. He works mainly on general Philosophy of Science, of Biology and
of Information and Aristotelian Studies. The Paths of Creation

Creativity in Science and Art

Peter Lang
The Paths of Creation
natur, wissenschaft und die künste
nature, science et les arts
nature, science and the arts

Volume 9

Edited by
Julia Burbulla
Bernd Nicolai
Ana-Stanca Tabarasi-Hoffmann
Philip Ursprung
Wolf Wucherpfennig

Editorial Board
Vincent Barras
Johanna Geyer-Kordesch
Michael Rohde
Victor Stoichita
Barbara Maria Stafford
Gudrun Wolfschmidt
Peter V. Zima

PETER LANG
Bern • Berlin • Bruxelles • Frankfurt am Main • New York • Oxford • Wien
 Sixto Castro & Alfredo Marcos (eds.)

The Paths of Creation

Creativity in Science and Art

PETER LANG
Bern • Berlin • Bruxelles • Frankfurt am Main • New York • Oxford • Wien
Bibliographic information published by die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek
Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche National-
bibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet
at ‹http://dnb.d-nb.de›.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data: A catalogue record for this book

is available from The British Library, Great Britain

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The paths of creation : creativity in science and art / Sixto Castro & Alfredo Marcos (eds.).
p. cm. -- (Natur, Wissenschaft und die Künste = Nature, science et les arts nature =
Science and the arts ; v. 9)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-3-03-430511-2
1. Creative ability. 2. Creative thinking. 3. Art and science. 4. Science--Philosophy.
5. Aesthetics. 6. Art--Philosophy. I. Castro, Sixto J. (Sixto José) II. Marcos, Alfredo.
B105.C74P38 2011
153.3'5--dc23
2011041139

Cover illustration:
Cover design: Thomas Jaberg, Peter Lang AG

ISBN 978-3-0343-0511-2 E‐ISBN 978‐3‐0351‐0307‐6

© Peter Lang AG, International Academic Publishers, Bern 2011

Hochfeldstrasse 32, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
[email protected], www.peterlang.com

All rights reserved.

All parts of this publication are protected by copyright.
Any utilisation outside the strict limits of the copyright law, without the permission
of the publisher, is forbidden and liable to prosecution.
This applies in particular to reproductions, translations, microfilming, and storage
and processing in electronic retrieval systems.

Printed in Switzerland
Table of Contents

Acknowledgements 7

1. Introduction 9
ALFREDO MARCOS and SIXTO J. CASTRO

Part I. Creative Procedures

2. Creative Rules and the Anomic Fallacy 19

SIXTO J. CASTRO
3. Methods of Scientific Creativity 33
SERGIO MENNA
4. The Creative Function of Abduction:
Constraints on Abductive Inference in Artistic and Scientific Creativity 47
EDUARDO DE BUSTOS
5. The Fertility of Analogy 61
MAURICIO BEUCHOT
6. Rationality in Science and the Arts: Common Sense and Heuristics 71
AMBROSIO VELASCO
7. The Function of Scientific Metaphors:
An Example of the Creative Power of Metaphors in Biological Theories 81
XAVIER DONATO and ALFONSO ARROYO
8. Experience, Emotions and Creativity 97
CRISTINA DI GREGORI and ANA ROSA PÉREZ RANSANZ
6 Table of Contents

Part II. Thematic Spheres of Creativity

9 Creativity and Mathematical Inspiration 117

JAVIER DE LORENZO
10. Knots and Braids.
Interweaving Art and Mathematics in Culture and Nature 135
LUCIANO BOI and LORRAINE VERNER
11. Physics and Poetry 165
ALBERTO ROJO
12. Creating Nature through Science and Art:
Discovering the Mountain in the 18th Century 177
FERNANDO CALDERÓN and MARÍA TERESA CALDERÓN
13. The Creative Discovery of Similarity 195
ALFREDO MARCOS

Part III. Historical Moments of Creativity

14. Creativity, Continuity and Discontinuity in Science and Art 215

J. C. PINTO DE OLIVEIRA
15. Historical Roots of Creativity: The Art of Science and the Science of Art
in the “Etymologies” of Isidore of Seville 233
RICARDO PIÑERO
16. Modernity and Creativity 245
JOSEPH MARGOLIS
17. Our Disgusting Soapy Water Science:
Wittgenstein on Creativity and Science 253
VICENTE SANFÉLIX

Notes on Contributors 273

Acknowledgements

“Art and Science” is a research group at the University of Valladolid (Spain) with
connexions with other researchers from Spain, Mexico, Brazil, USA, Argentina and
France. Our group has spent years working to establish a relationship between both
fields. As a result of our research, we have organized roundtables, workshops and
international meetings (Valencia, 2009), and have edited a previous book entitled
Arte y ciencia: mundos convergentes (Plaza y Valdés, 2010), which has been pub-
lished simultaneously in Spain and Mexico. The present book is the result of the re-
search activities of the group in collaboration with colleagues from other universities.
We want to express our deep gratitude to all our colleagues who have contributed to
this volume, as well as to Sudabee Lotfian for his invaluable help in correcting Eng-
lish language and to Caroline Schopfer for her careful editing job. We also thank the
University of Valladolid support for the research group. And we thank as well the
Regional Government of Castilla y León for financial support through the research
project 18ILBM99.
Introduction

ALFREDO MARCOS and SIXTO J. CASTRO

One of the hallmarks of modernity is the search for autonomy. Nation states emerge,
independent from the papacy and the empire, and within them, the classical division
of powers appears. Individual subjects are also demanding their autonomy from po-
litical power. They become autonomous citizens. This enlargement of autonomy oc-
curred in the sphere of culture as well. Human reason, allegedly, abandoned its reli-
ance on tradition and authority and became an autonomous entity. We can cite
Thomas Aquinas as an early precedent of this process. He affirmed the autonomy of
philosophy in relation to theology. Three centuries later, Galileo sought the auton-
omy of science and Machiavelli advocated for the autonomy of political reason. In
the eighteenth century some British economists spoke in favour of the autonomy of
economy and, in the nineteenth century, the banner of “art for art’s sake” was held
up. Many authors, such as Weber and Habermas, think that modernity is character-
ized precisely by the autonomy of the three major areas within the sphere of culture.
Immanuel Kant was the one who established more clearly the autonomy of science,
morality and art.
The goal of autonomy is fulfilled in many areas during modern times. This suc-
cess was perhaps even excessive. There was in many ways too much autonomy. The
different states soon lifted customs and tariffs, hampered the movement of people
and the goods traffic. They engaged also into endless conflicts and wars, without any
possible arbitration. Citizens ended up regretting the loneliness and isolation, the lack
of communication and of solidarity, even in the midst of the urban crowd. The hu-
man subject itself was split into different social roles. A new disease – what Bertrand
Russell called “the schizophrenia of modern man” – made its appearance. He was
also diagnosed the malaise in the culture, to use Freud’s words. The excessive sepa-
ration of the two cultures, the rift between arts and sciences is seen today as an au-
thentic cultural pathology.
Postmodern world loves autonomy, but rejects over-autonomy. Nowadays we are
seeking a fair compromise. We want to preserve modern achievements in the line of
autonomy, but we want to offset the excesses and to heal diseases as well. The
autonomy of the states is compensated by international agencies, through alliances
and treatises. For example, the process of European integration can be seen in this
10 Alfredo Marcos and S. J. Castro

light as a postmodern enterprise. The same applies to the ideas of solidarity and de-
pendence, which have a growing presence in the social legislation of many states. In
a similar way, we can think about the concept of reconciliation of work and family
life. The notions of system, link, network, web, etc. are typical postmodern concepts
that emphasize the need for connections, the need to compensate the excesses of
autonomy. In the sphere of culture, scholars usually speak about interdisciplinary.
This fact clearly highlights the need to reconnect the various fields of culture.
The relationship between art and science has to be thought within this historical
horizon. There was a moment of excessive autonomy. From a positivistic mentality,
it was believed that art and science were opposite. Each one was located at one of the
two opposed poles of the sphere of culture. They were characterized by mutual con-
trast. Art is born from imagination, science from observation and calculation. Art
uses metaphors, science uses the literal language. A subjective vision predominates
in art, while science is always ruled by the object. Science is the paradigm of ration-
ality, but art moves into the realm of the irrational, emotional and dreamlike. Science
is about the universal, art about the individual. Science derives into technical imple-
mentation, while art is only for aesthetic enjoyment. In short: art creates, science
discovers.
This simplistic view is inadequate and exaggerated. We want to balance the ex-
cesses. Art and science are, and should be, two different and autonomous entities, of
course. However, between them there are multiple connections that must be recog-
nized and studied, and even encouraged. Parallels and overlaps are very common. In
architecture, design, naturalistic painting, in the documentary films, in medical imag-
ing and in many other similar disciplines there is as much science as art, as much
truth as beauty. In addition, the mediation of computational tools is nowadays the
same in both fields. Science and art can help each other in many aspects. Science can
learn from art and vice versa. There exist common problems. For example, the tradi-
tional problem of demarcation in science is very similar to the problem of the defini-
tion of what art is. The dynamics of scientific theories have much in common, as
taught by Thomas Kuhn, with the succession of artistic styles. The identification of a
stable reference throughout the history is as problematic for the word “science” as for
the word “art”. In science there are as many aesthetic values at work as epistemic
values in art. And in both domains we can frequently detect the presence of moral
and practical values. These common grounds are nowadays so vast that they became
virtually inapproachable in a single volume. Therefore, we decided to focus this book
only on one of the possible common topics: creativity. Both art and science are hu-
man products. So, the kind of creativity at stake here cannot be absolute creation.
Creativity in art and science is not a creation ex nihilo, but always from precedents.
Introduction 11

However, this fact does not contradict the truth that through art and science real in-
novations come into the universe, entities that did not exist before.
Nowadays we appreciate the rational, epistemic and universal aspects of art. In
the same way as we question science’s rational purity, we note that in scientific ac-
tivity, creativity and imagination emerge, and the presence of metaphors in scientific
texts is a fact. In view of this new situation, partly produced by philosophical reflec-
tion itself, traditional divisions in philosophical analysis seem to be inappropriate.
Philosophy of science and philosophy of art have also gained a common ground, they
complement each other, and they have much to learn from one another. Both phi-
losophy of science and aesthetics have much to gain from a comparative study that
brings together the philosophical view on art and on science. Traditional “toolboxes”,
both analytical and hermeneutic, are useful to reflect on science and on art. This
comparative study is the main aim of this book. Moreover, this approach will con-
tribute to outline a common human path to creativity.
Our progress thus far has led us to be convinced of the validity of the thesis we
introduce in this book: that there is a common human rationality in both scientific
and artistic creative practices. That rationality is present not only in the justification
of scientific theories, but also in their creation. It is not a rigid rationality, as was
commonly thought some time ago, but a flexible one. In the same way, artistic crea-
tion is not born out of an irrational source; rather, this same prudential rationality is
at work in it. This common human rationality, then, establishes a bridge between
artistic and scientific creativity.
The book is organized in three parts. The first one explores the different proce-
dures of creativity. We introduce here the basic problem of whether there are regular
creative procedures or creativity is a human aspect impossible to reduce to rules. So,
we explore the possible procedures, ranging from the supposedly most regulated
ones to the most refractory to rules, that is, we move from hard to soft procedures,
including methods as such, abductive reasoning, analogy, metaphor, common sense
and the role of imagination and emotions.
Sixto J. Castro argues in chapter 2 that in any human practice there are rules that
build it and that ultimately define it. Changing rules means changing a practice, and
thus the proposal that one should not follow a rule is nothing but imposing a rule that
prohibits following rules, which is a performative contradiction: excluding rules re-
quires a rule, and it is not possible to get out of that circle, as human practices are
what they are primarily not due to their origins, but they are constituted by its
method. The anomic fallacy is, thus, a secularization of the Thomist idea that only he
who gives the rule to himself, or rather, whose very being is rule, cannot be judged
according to that rule. To develop this idea the chapter follows Wittgenstein’s dis-
tinction between constitutive and regulative rules.
12 Alfredo Marcos and S. J. Castro

Rules, of course, may be integrated into a method. Sergio Menna gives us in

chapter 3 a general introduction to the methods of scientific creativity, in order to
show their characteristics, problems and possibilities. To this end, the author begins
by presenting the main criticisms that have been directed against them throughout the
history of the philosophy of science, and concludes by showing the main arguments
in favour of an inferential method for scientific creativity.
Among these methods we can found ampliative inferences such as abduction.
This topic is approached by Eduardo de Bustos in chapter 4. If art and science are
viewed under the general prism of problem-solving theory, one can compare the
functions that the ecological and cognitive constraints on the abductive inferential
processes fulfil. Moreover, we can defend the cognitive continuum principle, con-
tending that the cognitive elaborations (common, artistic, scientific…), that are con-
sidered the core of human creativity, are not the outcome of specific or particular
capabilities or skills, but of general ones, manifest and conformed during the evolu-
tion, and in similar relationships with the social, cultural and historical contexts in
which they appear.
Analogy counts among the ampliative inferences as well. In chapter 5 Mauricio
Beuchot explores the relationships between analogy and certain ideas which have
been very fruitful in the philosophy of science. These include metaphor, model,
paradigm and abduction. The relationship between metaphor and scientific models
has been studied, for example, by Max Black. The link between paradigm and anal-
ogy, through iconicity, has been considered by Wittgenstein and Thomas Kuhn. The
connection between Charles S. Peirce’s abduction and analogy is just being studied.
The chapter relates all these notions, as the study of such relationships will be a very
enlightening and fruitful exploration within the philosophy of science, which today
makes wide use of these concepts.
Both science and arts exhibit also other creative resources far away from the pure
methodological rules, such as common sense and heuristics. Ambrosio Velasco re-
flects on contemporary philosophy of science (Duhem, Polanyi, Popper, Kuhn) and
on philosophical hermeneutics (Gadamer). In chapter 6, he argues that common
sense and heuristics are two essential dimensions of science and the arts that may be
useful in order to put forward a new idea of rationality that promotes a unified cul-
ture, against the predominant separation of science, arts, ethics and politics. The core
of this alternative concept of rationality, common to science and the arts, is a dialec-
tical tension between creative innovation (heuristics) and consensus (common sense)
that is continuously and provisionally resolved by prudential judgment.
If one aims at studying the notion of creativity in science and art, metaphors
seem another promising topic to focus on. In particular, chapter 7 deals with the na-
ture and function of metaphors in biology. Here Xavier Donato and Alfonso Arroyo
Introduction 13

relate the notion of metaphor to those of model and idealization. This allows them to
relate metaphors to creativity in science. Their paper argues that an analysis of scien-
tific metaphors based on the notion of idealization provides us with an explanation of
the many epistemic and heuristic virtues scientific metaphors exhibit in the develop-
ment of theories and in the application of models. This is exemplified with a case-
study taken from the biological sciences: the case of the self-nonself in immunology.
The aim of chapter 8 is to retrieve Poincaré and Dewey’s ideas on human crea-
tivity in order to emphasize their notably cogency in the current context of creativity
studies. Ana Rosa Pérez Ransanz and Cristina di Gregori’s text holds that Dewey’s
theory of experience provides an especially well suited philosophical framework to
analyze the complex and multifaceted nature of human creativity. As well as allow-
ing Poincaré’s description of the creative process to be re-valued, it is consistent with
numerous recent empirical studies on creative processes. Finally, they argue that the
mystery that still surrounds the creativity phenomenon – especially in fine arts –
arises from a poor understanding of emotions, and it vanishes when emotions’ vital
cognitive functions are understood.
The Second part is focused on scientific and artistic creativity, especially on par-
ticular disciplines and objects. We analyze the special characteristics of creativity in
artistic and scientific disciplines such as mathematics, painting, physics and poetry.
We also explore the peculiar traits of creativity in relation to some very important
objects. Sometimes the outcome of our creative procedures can be nature itself. So,
we can see nature, or a part of it, as created by science and art. On the other hand,
similarity could be described as the most immediate product of our creative activity.
As we do science or art we are really performing the creative discovery of similari-
ties.
Every mathematical creator, according to Javier de Lorenzo, intends to produce
good mathematics. The groundwork laid down by a mathematical creator is axiologi-
cal, and within it lies the aesthetic. Hence, it becomes reasonable to ask whether it is
also beautiful or ugly, elegant or tasteless mathematics. In opposition to the philoso-
phical views of Hilbert and Bourbaki, and following the path opened by Poincaré,
chapter 9 argues that there are different mathematical styles, different criteria to as-
sess values in mathematical creations and to emphasize the historical and experiential
dimensions of mathematical practices. Mathematical creativity, in its different phases
or stages, is supported by three pillars: talent, hard work, and enlightenment or inspi-
ration. Furthermore, there is a will-to-style, and also pleasure in discovering beauty
and harmony.
Luciano Boi and Lorraine Verner also deal with creativity in mathematics, spe-
cifically in knot theory, and its connexion with painting. Knot theory is a beautiful
theory, from the mathematical as well as from the aesthetic point of view. Its roots go
14 Alfredo Marcos and S. J. Castro

back to the ancient civilizations. During Renaissance, knots and interlaces become a
model for representing the entanglement of nature and art by means of complex
geometric forms. The connection between knots and nature reappeared at the end of
19th century thanks to the vortex theory. Since then, knot theory has developed in the
most important branches of mathematics and physics. Around the sixties, some art-
ists start to explore the aesthetic properties of knots and other topological objects.
They create a new and interesting field of art in which nature, science, culture and
human creation appear to be profoundly intertwined. Chapter 10 presents some of
these developments and highlights the intimate link between mathematics and art,
both viewed as forms of creation.
Alberto Rojo focuses on the relationship between creativity in both physics and
poetry. If, with Wittgenstein, we believe that “the limits of my language are the lim-
its of my world”, it is through poetry and metaphor that those limits are stretched and
even dissolved. Chapter 11 presents some examples where the poetic imagination
anticipates and inspires scientific discoveries, initial artifices of the poetic imagina-
tion that were later anthologized into a scientific synthesis of reality. The text discuss
some author’s favourite examples: Dante and the curvature of space, Edgar Allan
Poe and Olber’s paradox, Einstein and the suspension of disbelief and Jorge Luis
Borges and the idea of parallel universes.
Fernando Calderón and María Teresa Calderón, in chapter 12, invite us to see na-
ture itself as a product of human creativity. In 18th century the mountain was still a
place to be discovered. It was then that the great mountain ranges of Europe – espe-
cially the Alps – became a “new world”, and therefore a place that demanded some
specific language to name it. It was an extraordinary challenge to describe not only
precise details but also the previously unknown emotions experienced by the pio-
neers. Both men of arts and men of science declared their impotence, as the mountain
denounced the handicaps of language: the horizontal sequential dimension of lan-
guage failed when confronted vertical world. Rousseau and Horace-Bénédict de
Saussure deserve a separate mention. The former showed the mountain to the reader
and talked about the beautiful in his literary writings; the latter took the reader to the
most unique summits of the Alps and talked about the sublime in his scientific writ-
ings. From then on these two aesthetic categories – the beautiful and the sublime –
adapted to and became part of this (re)creation of the mountain.
Chapter 13 closes this second part dealing with the question of similarity as a
creative discovery. It deals also with the connected notions of identity and difference.
At first sight, and using common sense, the value of similarity for science and art is
evident. Nevertheless, Nelson Goodman drastically restricts and relativizes the phi-
losophical importance of similarity. But without similarity the sphere of culture is at
risk of annihilation, and the joint thought of identity and difference becomes impos-
Introduction 15

sible. So, Alfredo Marcos’ text attempts to reinstate similarity as a triadic relation-
ship, following Aristotle’s and Peirce’s inspiration, where the creativity of the human
subject is indispensable, but an objective pole still remains.
The third part of the present book adopts a historical approach to the problem of
creativity. We start by challenging the traditional thesis that history of science exhib-
its a continuity which is absent in the history of art. Actually, creative leaps are pre-
sent in both. The rest of this third part is devoted to the historical view of artistic and
scientific creativity in middle age, modern and contemporary philosophy.
Chapter 14 discusses creativity, continuity and discontinuity in science and in art
by drawing parallels between Kuhn and Gombrich. The author, J. C. Pinto de Oliveira,
seeks to show that, while the idea of cumulative progress in the history of science, as
well as in the history of art, was abandoned as a new historiography, sensitive to rup-
tures, emerged, this does not imply the denial of all continuity. On the contrary, con-
tinuity is a necessary condition for the identification of a revolutionary rupture.
However, continuity in this context is not a logical continuity, but rather a more
complex theoretical and historical relation.
Ricardo Piñero focuses on medieval creativity through the study of the work of
Isidoro de Sevilla. This important intellectual – as he is presented in chapter 15 – was
the author of one of the most influential works of all times: the Etymologiae. In its
twenty books we find a compendium of all secular and religious knowledge of his
time. It was extraordinarily well disseminated, and so it became a widely used refer-
ence manual. The whole hermeneutic project starts from the Isidorian conviction that
the primitive and essential nature of the things can be found in the etymology of the
names. Thus, language itself becomes an art of genetic investigation. This link be-
tween things and words, res et verba, between real world and linguistic creations,
unfolds a whole horizon of possibilities from which the theory of art, aesthetics and
sciences in general were to benefit very positively, both methodologically and con-
ceptually.
“Modernity” – as Joseph Margolis states – seems to collect the most notable
changes and innovations of history that fall, broadly, within the span of mid-
eighteenth century Europe and the close of the twentieth century, in fact, the closest,
culturally most familiar neighbouring age to our own. Chapter 16 suggests that “crea-
tivity” is itself an artifact of cultural history, in the sense that human agents are them-
selves hybrid artifacts of cultural transformation. The idea here is that the theory of
creativity is, first of all, restricted to the human – to the reflexive, deliberate and in-
tentional, purposive, significant and significative activity of the human will: above
all, to what is expressive of the sensibilities of selves reflecting their absorption of
the collective energies of their own transformative culture.
16 Alfredo Marcos and S. J. Castro

Finally, Vicente Sanfélix deals with the contemporary idea of creativity. There is
a seductive image of science. According to this view, science consists basically in
solving problems. And since both solving problems is a creative activity, and science
has solved so many problems and transformed our way of life so intensively and ex-
tensively with its technical applications, science seems to be an activity as eminently
creative as artistic activity. However, Ludwig Wittgenstein, to whose comprehension
of the cultural significance of science and technology is devoted this last chapter, had
thoughts which oppose that dominant image and give his philosophy a dimension of
social criticism which is initially unsuspected.
 Part I.
Creative Procedures
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