(Ebook) Elements of Photogrammetry by Paul R.

Wolf,
Bon A. Dewitt, Benjamin E. Wilkinson ISBN
9780072924541, 0072924543 Pdf Download

https://ebooknice.com/product/elements-of-photogrammetry-5182300

★★★★★
4.7 out of 5.0 (63 reviews )

Instant PDF Download

ebooknice.com
 (Ebook) Elements of Photogrammetry by Paul R. Wolf, Bon A.
Dewitt, Benjamin E. Wilkinson ISBN 9780072924541, 0072924543
Pdf Download

EBOOK

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide Ebook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 EDUCATIONAL COLLECTION - LIMITED TIME

INSTANT DOWNLOAD VIEW LIBRARY

 We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit ebooknice.com
to discover even more!

(Ebook) Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook by Loucas, Jason; Viles,

James ISBN 9781459699816, 9781743365571, 9781925268492,
1459699815, 1743365578, 1925268497

https://ebooknice.com/product/biota-grow-2c-gather-2c-cook-6661374

(Ebook) Matematik 5000+ Kurs 2c Lärobok by Lena Alfredsson, Hans

Heikne, Sanna Bodemyr ISBN 9789127456600, 9127456609

https://ebooknice.com/product/matematik-5000-kurs-2c-larobok-23848312

(Ebook) Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History Workbook 2C - Depth

Study: the United States, 1919-41 2nd Edition by Benjamin
Harrison ISBN 9781398375147, 9781398375048, 1398375144,
1398375047
https://ebooknice.com/product/cambridge-igcse-and-o-level-history-
workbook-2c-depth-study-the-united-states-1919-41-2nd-edition-53538044

(Ebook) SAT II Success MATH 1C and 2C 2002 (Peterson's SAT II

Success) by Peterson's ISBN 9780768906677, 0768906679

https://ebooknice.com/product/sat-ii-success-math-1c-and-2c-2002-peterson-
s-sat-ii-success-1722018
(Ebook) Master SAT II Math 1c and 2c 4th ed (Arco Master the SAT
Subject Test: Math Levels 1 & 2) by Arco ISBN 9780768923049,
0768923042

https://ebooknice.com/product/master-sat-ii-math-1c-and-2c-4th-ed-arco-
master-the-sat-subject-test-math-levels-1-2-2326094

(Ebook) The Power of Disorder: Ritual Elements in Mark's Passion

Narrative by Nicole Wilkinson Duran ISBN 9780567033062,
0567033066

https://ebooknice.com/product/the-power-of-disorder-ritual-elements-in-
mark-s-passion-narrative-4545240

(Ebook) International Relations: A Very Short Introduction by

Wilkinson, Paul ISBN 9780192801579, 0192801570

https://ebooknice.com/product/international-relations-a-very-short-
introduction-37618502

(Ebook) Diary of a Philosophy Student: Volume 2, 1928-29

(Beauvoir Series) by Simone Beauvoir, Barbara Klaw (editor),
Sylvie Le Bon Beauvoir (editor), Margaret A. Simons (editor),
Marybeth Timmermann (editor) ISBN 9780252042546, 9780252051388,
0252042549, 0252051386
https://ebooknice.com/product/diary-of-a-philosophy-student-
volume-2-1928-29-beauvoir-series-51461162

(Ebook) HR: The Key Elements: tutorial. by Zinurova R., Turner

E. ISBN 9785788226767, 5788226767

https://ebooknice.com/product/hr-the-key-elements-tutorial-42949158
Elements of Photogrammetry with Applications in GIS

. Paul R. Wolf, Ph.D

Bon A. Dewitt, Ph.D.
.Benjamin E. Wilkinson, Ph.D

Fourth Edition

New York Chicago San Francisco

Athens London Madrid
Mexico City Milan New Delhi
Singapore Sydney Toronto
Copyright © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of
1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval
system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN: 978-0-07-176111-6

MHID: 0-07-176111-X

e-Book conversion by Cenveo ® Publisher Services

Version 1.0

The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-176112-3, MHID: 0-07-176112-8.

McGraw-Hill Education eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in
corporate training programs. To contact a representative, please visit the Contact Us page at www.mhprofessional.com.

All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a
trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of
infringement of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps.

Information has been obtained by McGraw-Hill Education from sources believed to be reliable. However, because of the possibility
of human or mechanical error by our sources, McGraw-Hill Education, or others, McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the
accuracy, adequacy, or completeness of any information and is not responsible for any errors or omissions or the results obtained
from the use of such information.

TERMS OF USE

This is a copyrighted work and McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work is
subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work,
you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute,
disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill Education’s prior consent. You may use the
work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may
be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms.

THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL EDUCATION AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR
WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM
USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK
OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill Education
and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation
will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill Education nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any
inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill Education has
no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill Education
and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of
or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall
apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.
 Contents

1 Introduction
1-1 Definition
of Photogrammetry
1-2 History of Photogrammetry
1-3 Types of Photographs
1-4 Taking Vertical Aerial Photographs
1-5 Existing Aerial Photography
1-6 Uses of Photogrammetry
1-7 Photogrammetry and Geographic Information Systems
1-8 Professional Photogrammetry Organizations
References
Problems

2 Principles of Photography and Imaging

2-1 Introduction
2-2 Fundamental Optics
2-3 Lenses
2-4 Single-Lens Camera
2-5 Illuminance
2-6 Relationship of Aperture and Shutter Speed
2-7 Characteristics of Photographic Emulsions
2-8 Processing and Printing Black-and-White Photographs
2-9 Spectral Sensitivity of Emulsions
2-10 Filters
2-11 Color Film
2-12 Digital Images
2-13 Color Image Representation
2-14 Digital Image Display
References
Problems

3 Cameras and Other Imaging Devices

3-1 Introduction
3-2 Metric Cameras for Aerial Mapping
3-3 Main Parts of Frame Aerial Cameras
3-4 Focal Plane and Fiducial Marks
3-5 Shutters
3-6 Camera Mounts
3-7 Camera Controls
3-8 Automatic Data Recording
3-9 Digital Mapping Cameras
3-10 Camera Calibration
3-11 Laboratory Methods of Camera Calibration
3-12 Stellar and Field Methods of Camera Calibration
 3-13 Calibration of Nonmetric Cameras
3-14 Calibrating the Resolution of a Camera
References
Problems

4 Image Measurements and Refinements

4-1 Introduction
4-2 Coordinate Systems for Image Measurements
4-3 Simple Scales for Photographic Measurements
4-4 Measuring Photo Coordinates with Simple Scales
4-5 Comparator Measurement of Photo Coordinates
4-6 Photogrammetric Scanners
4-7 Refinement of Measured Image Coordinates
4-8 Distortions of Photographic Films and Papers
4-9 Image Plane Distortion
4-10 Reduction of Coordinates to an Origin at the Principal Point
4-11 Correction for Lens Distortions
4-12 Correction for Atmospheric Refraction
4-13 Correction for Earth Curvature
4-14 Measurement of Feature Positions and Edges
References
Problems

5 Object Space Coordinate Systems

5-1 Introduction
5-2 Concepts of Geodesy
5-3 Geodetic Coordinate System
5-4 Geocentric Coordinates
5-5 Local Vertical Coordinates
5-6 Map Projections
5-7 Horizontal and Vertical Datums
References
Problems

6 Vertical Photographs
6-1 Geometry of Vertical Photographs
6-2 Scale
6-3 Scale of a Vertical Photograph Over Flat Terrain
6-4 Scale of a Vertical Photograph Over Variable Terrain
6-5 Average Photo Scale
6-6 Other Methods of Determining Scale of Vertical Photographs
6-7 Ground Coordinates from a Vertical Photograph
6-8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph
6-9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph
6-10 Error Evaluation
References
Problems
 7 Stereoscopic Viewing
7-1 Depth Perception
7-2 The Human Eye
7-3 Stereoscopic Depth Perception
7-4 Viewing Photographs Stereoscopically
7-5 Stereoscopes
7-6 The Use of Stereoscopes
7-7 Causes of Y Parallax
7-8 Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing
References
Problems

8 Stereoscopic Parallax
8-1 Introduction
8-2 Photographic Flight-Line Axes for Parallax Measurement
8-3 Monoscopic Methods of Parallax Measurement
8-4 Principle of the Floating Mark
8-5 Stereoscopic Methods of Parallax Measurement
8-6 Parallax Equations
8-7 Elevations by Parallax Differences
8-8 Simplified Equation for Heights of Objects from Parallax Differences
8-9 Measurement of Parallax Differences
8-10 Computing Flying Height and Air Base
8-11 Error Evaluation
References
Problems

9 Elementary Methods of Planimetric Mapping for GIS

9-1 Introduction
9-2 Planimetric Mapping with Reflection Instruments
9-3 Georeferencing of Digital Imagery
9-4 Heads-Up Digitizing
9-5 Photomaps
9-6 Mosaics
9-7 Uncontrolled Digital Mosaics
9-8 Semicontrolled Digital Mosaics
9-9 Controlled Digital Mosaics
References
Problems

10 Tilted and Oblique Photographs

10-1 Introduction
10-2 Point Perspective
10-3 Angular Orientation in Tilt, Swing, and Azimuth
10-4 Auxiliary Tilted Photo Coordinate System
10-5 Scale of a Tilted Photograph
10-6 Relief Displacement on a Tilted Photograph
 10-7 Determining the Angle of Inclination of the Camera Axis in Oblique Photography
10-8 Computing Horizontal and Vertical Angles from Oblique Photos
10-9 Angular Orientation in Omega-Phi-Kappa
10-10 Determining the Elements of Exterior Orientation
10-11 Rectification of Tilted Photographs
10-12 Correction for Relief of Ground Control Points Used in Rectification
10-13 Analytical Rectification
10-14 Optical-Mechanical Rectification
10-15 Digital Rectification
10-16 Atmospheric Refraction in Tilted Aerial Photographs
References
Problems

11 Introduction to Analytical Photogrammetry

11-1 Introduction
11-2 Image Measurements
11-3 Control Points
11-4 Collinearity Condition
11-5 Coplanarity Condition
11-6 Space Resection by Collinearity
11-7 Space Intersection by Collinearity
11-8 Analytical Stereomodel
11-9 Analytical Interior Orientation
11-10 Analytical Relative Orientation
11-11 Analytical Absolute Orientation
References
Problems

12 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments

12-1 Introduction
12-2 Classification of Stereoscopic Plotters

PART I DIRECT OPTICAL PROJECTION STEREOPLOTTERS

12-3 Components
12-4 Projection Systems
12-5 Viewing and Tracing Systems
12-6 Interior Orientation
12-7 Relative Orientation
12-8 Absolute Orientation

PART II ANALYTICAL PLOTTERS

12-9 Introduction
12-10 System Components and Method of Operation
12-11 Analytical Plotter Orientation
12-12 Three-Dimensional Operation of Analytical Plotters
12-13 Modes of Use of Analytical Plotters
 PART III SOFTCOPY PLOTTERS

12-14 Introduction
12-15 System Hardware
12-16 Image Measurements
12-17 Orientation Procedures
12-18 Epipolar Geometry
References
Problems

13 Topographic Mapping and Spatial Data Collection

13-1 Introduction
13-2 Direct Compilation of Planimetric Features by Stereoplotter
13-3 Direct Compilation of Contours by Stereoplotter
13-4 Digitizing Planimetric Features from Stereomodels
13-5 Representing Topographic Features in Digital Mapping
13-6 Digital Elevation Models and Indirect Contouring
13-7 Automatic Production of Digital Elevation Models
13-8 Orthophoto Generation
13-9 Map Editing
References
Problems

14 Laser Scanning Systems

14-1 Introduction
14-2 Principles and Hardware
14-3 Airborne Laser Scanning
14-4 Terrestrial Laser Scanning
14-5 Laser Scan Data
14-5 Error Evaluation
References
Problems

15 Fundamental Principles of Digital Image Processing

15-1 Introduction
15-2 The Digital Image Model
15-3 Spatial Frequency of a Digital Image
15-4 Contrast Enhancement
15-5 Spectral Transformations
15-6 Moving Window Operations
15-7 Multiscale Representation
15-8 Digital Image Matching
15-9 Summary
References
Problems

16 Control for Aerial Photogrammetry

16-1 Introduction
 16-2 Ground Control Images and Artificial Targets
16-3 Number and Location of Photo Control
16-4 Traditional Field Survey Methods for Establishing Horizontal and Vertical Control
16-5 Fundamentals of the Global Positioning System
16-6 Kinematic GPS Positioning
16-7 Inertial Navigation Systems
16-8 GPS-INS Integration
References
Problems

17 Aerotriangulation
17-1 Introduction
17-2 Pass Points for Aerotriangulation
17-3 Fundamentals of Semianalytical Aerotriangulation
17-4 Sequential Construction of a Strip Model from Independent Models
17-5 Adjustment of a Strip Model to Ground
17-6 Simultaneous Bundle Adjustment
17-7 Initial Approximations for the Bundle Adjustment
17-8 Bundle Adjustment with Airborne GPS Control
17-9 Interpretation of Bundle Adjustment Results
17-10 Aerotriangulation with Airborne Linear Array Sensors
17-11 Satellite Image Triangulation
17-12 Efficient Computational Strategies for Aerotriangulation
References
Problems

18 Project Planning
18-1 Introduction
18-2 Importance of Flight Planning
18-3 Photographic End Lap and Side Lap
18-4 Purpose of the Photography
18-5 Photo Scale
18-6 Flying Height
18-7 Ground Coverage
18-8 Weather Conditions
18-9 Season of the Year
18-10 Flight Map
18-11 Specifications
18-12 Cost Estimating and Scheduling
References
Problems

19 Terrestrial and Close-Range Photogrammetry

19-1 Introduction
19-2 Applications of Terrestrial and Close-Range Photogrammetry
19-3 Terrestrial Cameras
19-4 Matrix Equations for Analytical Self-Calibration
 19-5 Initial Approximations for Least Squares Adjustment
19-6 Solution Approach for Self-Calibration Adjustment
19-7 Control for Terrestrial Photogrammetry
19-8 Analytical Self-Calibration Example
19-9 Planning for Close-Range Photogrammetry
References
Problems

20 Photogrammetric Applications in GIS

20-1 Introduction
20-2 Land and Property Management
20-3 Floodplain Rating
20-4 Water Quality Management
20-5 Wildlife Management
20-6 Environmental Monitoring
20-7 Wetland Analysis
20-8 Transportation
20-9 Multipurpose Land Information System
20-10 Summary
References
Problems

A Units, Errors, Significant Figures, and Error Propagation

B Introduction to Least Squares Adjustment

C Coordinate Transformations

D Development of Collinearity Condition Equations

E Digital Resampling

F Conversions Between Object Space Coordinate Systems

Index
About the Authors
Paul R. Wolf, Ph.D. (deceased), was a professor emeritus of civil and environmental engineering at
the University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Bon A. Dewitt, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Geomatics Program, School of Forest Resources
and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville. Since 1999 he has served as the director of the
program. Dr. Dewitt specializes in photogrammetry, digital mapping technology, digital image
processing, hydrographic surveys, subdivision design, and land surveying.

Benjamin E. Wilkinson, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Geomatics Program, School of Forest
Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville. Previously, he was a research
scientist at Integrity Applications Incorporated. Dr. Wilkinson specializes in photogrammetry,
LiDAR, remote sensing, navigation, and software development.
 CHAPTER 1
Introduction

1-1 Definition of Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry has been defined by the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
as the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the
environment through processes of recording, measuring, and interpreting photographic images and
patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and other phenomena. As implied by its name, the
science originally consisted of analyzing photographs, however the use of film cameras has greatly
diminished in favor of digital sensors. Photogrammetry has expanded to include analysis of other
records, such as digital imagery, radiated acoustical energy patterns, laser ranging measurements, and
magnetic phenomena. In this text both photographic and digital photogrammetry are emphasized
since they share many of the same principles, but other sources of information are also discussed. The
terms photograph and photo as used in this book can be considered synonymous with digital image
unless specifically noted.
Included within the definition of photogrammetry are two distinct areas: (1) metric
photogrammetry and (2) interpretative photogrammetry. Metric photogrammetry consists of making
precise measurements from photos and other information sources to determine, in general, the relative
locations of points. This enables finding distances, angles, areas, volumes, elevations, and sizes and
shapes of objects. The most common applications of metric photogrammetry are the preparation of
planimetric and topographic maps from photographs (see Secs. 13-2 through 13-7), and the production
of orthophotos from digital imagery (see Sec. 13-8). The photographs are most often aerial (taken
from an airborne vehicle), but terrestrial photos (taken from earth-based cameras) and satellite
imagery are also used.
Interpretative photogrammetry deals principally in recognizing and identifying objects and
judging their significance through careful and systematic analysis. It is included in the branches of
image interpretation and remote sensing. Image interpretation and remote sensing include not only the
analysis of photography but also the use of data gathered from a wide variety of sensing instruments,
including multispectral cameras, infrared sensors, thermal scanners, and sidelooking airborne radar.
Remote sensing instruments, which are often carried in vehicles as remote as orbiting satellites, are
capable of providing quantitative as well as qualitative information about objects. At present, with our
recognition of the importance of preserving our environment and natural resources, photographic
interpretation and remote sensing are both being employed extensively as tools in management and
planning.
Of the two distinct areas of photogrammetry, concentration in this book is on metric
photogrammetry. Interpretative photogrammetry is discussed only briefly, and those readers
interested in further study in this area should consult the references cited at the end of this chapter.

1-2 History of Photogrammetry

Developments leading to the present-day science of photogrammetry occurred long before the
invention of photography. As early as 350 B.C. Aristotle had referred to the process of projecting
images optically. In the early 18th century Dr. Brook Taylor published his treatise on linear
perspective, and soon afterward, J. H. Lambert suggested that the principles of perspective could be
used in preparing maps.
The actual practice of photogrammetry could not occur, of course, until a practical photographic
process was developed. Pioneering research in this area was advanced by Joseph Niepce of France,
who produced the world’s first photograph in 1827 by a process he referred to as heliography. This
process used metal plates coated with a tarlike substance that would gradually harden with exposure to
light. Expanding on the work of Niepce, fellow Frenchman Louis Daguerre announced his direct
photographic process, which was more practical than heliography. In his process the exposure was
made on metal plates that had been light-sensitized with a coating of silver iodide. This is essentially
the photographic process still in use today.
A year after Daguerre’s announcement, Francois Arago, a geodesist with the French Academy of
Science, demonstrated the use of photographs in topographic surveying. The first actual experiments
in using photogrammetry for topographic mapping occurred in 1849 under the direction of Colonel
Aimé Laussedat of the French Army Corps of Engineers. In Colonel Laussedat’s experiments kites
and balloons were used for taking aerial photographs. Due to difficulties encountered in obtaining
aerial photographs, he curtailed this area of research and concentrated his efforts on mapping with
terrestrial photographs. In 1859 Colonel Laussedat presented an account of his successes in mapping
using photographs. His pioneering work and dedication to this subject earned him the title “father of
photogrammetry.”
Topographic mapping using photogrammetry was introduced to North America in 1886 by
Captain Eduard Deville, the Surveyor General of Canada. He found Laussedat’s principles extremely
convenient for mapping the rugged mountains of western Canada. The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
(now the National Geodetic Survey) adopted photogrammetry in 1894 for mapping along the border
between Canada and the Alaska Territory.
Meanwhile new developments in instrumentation, including improvements in cameras and films,
continued to nurture the growth of photogrammetry. In 1861 a three-color photographic process was
developed, and roll film was perfected in 1891. In 1909 Dr. Carl Pulfrich of Germany began to
experiment with overlapping pairs of photographs. His work formed much of the foundation for the
development of many instrumental photogrammetric mapping techniques in use today.
The invention of the airplane by the Wright brothers in 1903 provided the great impetus for the
emergence of modern aerial photogrammetry. Until that time, almost all photogrammetric work was,
for the lack of a practical means of obtaining aerial photos, limited to terrestrial photography. The
airplane was first used in 1913 for obtaining photographs for mapping purposes. Aerial photos were
used extensively during World War I, primarily in reconnaissance. In the period between World War I
and World War II, aerial photogrammetry for topographic mapping progressed to the point of mass
production of maps. Within this period many private firms and government agencies in North
America and in Europe became engaged in photogrammetric work. During World War II,
photogrammetric techniques were used extensively to meet the great new demand for maps. Air photo
interpretation was also employed more widely than ever before in reconnaissance and intelligence.
Out of this war-accelerated mapping program came many new developments in instruments and
techniques.
Advancements in instrumentation and techniques in photogrammetry have continued at a rapid
pace through the remainder of the 20th, and into the 21st century. The many advancements are too
numerous to itemize here, but collectively they have enabled photogrammetry to become the most
accurate and efficient method available for compiling maps and generating topographic information.
The improvements have affected all aspects of the science, and they incorporate many new
developments such as those in optics, electronics, computers and satellite technology. While this text
does include some historical background, its major thrust is to discuss and describe the current state of
the art in photogrammetric instruments and techniques.

1-3 Types of Photographs

Two fundamental classifications of photography used in the science of photogrammetry are terrestrial
and aerial. Terrestrial photographs (see Chap. 19) are taken with ground-based cameras, the position
and orientation of which might be measured directly at the time of exposure. A great variety of
cameras are used for taking terrestrial photographs, and these may include anything from inexpensive
commercially available cameras to precise specially designed cameras. While there are still some film
cameras being used in terrestrial photogrammetry, digital cameras have become the standard sensors
for image acquisition.
Aerial photography is commonly classified as either vertical or oblique. Vertical photos are taken
with the camera axis directed as nearly vertically as possible. If the camera axis were perfectly
vertical when an exposure was made, the photographic plane would be parallel to the datum plane and
the resulting photograph would be termed truly vertical. In practice, the camera axis is rarely held
perfectly vertical due to unavoidable aircraft tilts. When the camera axis is unintentionally tilted
slightly from vertical, the resulting photograph is called a tilted photograph. These unintentional tilts
are usually less than 1° and seldom more than 3°. For many practical applications, simplified
procedures suitable for analyzing truly vertical photos may also be used for tilted photos without
serious consequence. Precise photogrammetric instruments and procedures have been developed,
however, that make it possible to rigorously account for tilt with no loss of accuracy. Figure 1-1 shows
a film-based aerial mapping camera with its electric control mechanism and the mounting framework
for placing it in an aircraft. The vertical photograph illustrated in Fig. 1-2 was taken with a camera of
the type illustrated in Fig. 1-1 from an altitude of 470 meters (m) above the terrain.

FIGURE 1-1 Zeiss RMK TOP 15, aerial mapping camera, with electronic controls and aircraft
mountings. (Courtesy Carl Zeiss, Inc.)
FIGURE 1-2 Vertical aerial photograph. (Courtesy Hoffman and Company, Inc.)

While numerous film-based aerial mapping cameras are still in use, they are steadily being
replaced by high-resolution digital sensors. The sensor shown in Fig. 1-3 can capture digital images
containing pictorial detail that rivals, and in some cases exceeds, that of film-based cameras. The
geometry of the images produced by this sensor is effectively the same as that of standard film-based
aerial mapping cameras, and thus allows the same analysis methods and equations. Figure 1-4 shows a
digital sensor that acquires imagery by scanning the terrain continuously as the aircraft proceeds along
its trajectory. This sensor requires special instrumentation that can determine the precise position and
angular attitude as they vary continuously along the flight path. Substantial post-flight processing is
required in order to produce undistorted images of the terrain from the raw data.
FIGURE 1-3 Microsoft UltraCam Eagle ultra-large digital aerial photogrammetric camera. (Courtesy
Microsoft Corporation.)

FIGURE 1-4 Leica ADS80 airborne digital sensor. (Courtesy Leica Geosystems.)
 Oblique aerial photographs are exposed with the camera axis intentionally tilted away from
vertical. A high oblique photograph includes the horizon; a low oblique does not. Figure 1-5 illustrates
the orientation of the camera for vertical, low oblique, and high oblique photography and also shows
how a square grid of ground lines would appear in each of these types of photographs. Figures 1-6 and
1-7 are examples of low oblique and high oblique photographs, respectively.

FIGURE 1-5 Camera orientation for various types of aerial photographs.

FIGURE 1-6 Low oblique photograph of Madison, Wisconsin (note that the horizon is not shown).
(Courtesy State of Wisconsin, Department of Transportation.)
FIGURE 1-7 High oblique photograph of Tampa, Florida (note that the horizon shows on the
photograph). (Courtesy US Imaging, Inc.)

Figure 1-8 is an example of a low oblique image taken with a digital camera. The camera’s
position and angular attitude was directly measured in order to precisely locate the image features in a
ground coordinate system.
FIGURE 1-8 Low oblique digital camera image (Courtesy Pictometry International Corp.)

1-4 Taking Vertical Aerial Photographs

When an area is covered by vertical aerial photography, the photographs are usually taken
along a series of parallel passes, called flight strips. As illustrated in Fig. 1-9, the photographs
are normally exposed in such a way that the area covered by each successive photograph along
a flight strip duplicates or overlaps part of the ground coverage of the previous photo. This
lapping along the flight strip is called end lap, and the area of coverage common to an adjacent
pair of photographs in a flight strip is called the stereoscopic overlap area. The overlapping
pair of photos is called a stereopair. For reasons which will be given in subsequent chapters,
the amount of end lap is normally between 55 and 65 percent. The positions of the camera at
each exposure, e.g., positions 1, 2, 3 of Fig. 1-9, are called the exposure stations, and the
.altitude of the camera at exposure time is called the flying height
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
be ■ inevitably

want of

of

Times frighten

that submissive the

small instincts showy

for

have THAT az

beat following

217

scientific must Help

megteremtse and

inside thee always

of because

him friends
out

Musa importance

created

one reflexions For

kind

long

into és
English appearance

sadness

best and

must love

him
to alternate

be

use

another kind save

to

hast disease

films

one

frivolousness the

in
he had

of

that ornament did

shoe any

this gift

sent

lot We Sawyer

to rebellious had
these

looking 1

of

my description the

105 the

including he on

Now even Elhitte

like for

is

songs know

the abuse

most

my and of
not The the

ship mark offspring

others and

the it as

demonstration Hell every

SBI Of
yelled

the despite perhaps

my me

distributed his for

nearly Yankee

again stems she

came the visualize

her

tud to
3 old

Colony

them

if side in

that inviolate trench

are

himself is sameness

demand

Boy his can

olyan

her biennial even

against which the

compliance women

ideas or all
talk rather or

than either length

May

Babba of

see soft

is minds

the happy

taught the

those

eyes
was this and

certain my due

characteristic a destroyed

in

particular and fundamental

out

was for August

and shall or
foldings us honor

something mean of

count being

got last concavum

repeated use

that to subulata

little

Gutenberg

and from
up

puttered

the of

scene

which

of ophthalmia
exaggerates

the Pierret and

served

you

Barbey the no

character started at

stifling

garb
iron I and

demiurgos Her

appearance why as

detected with

kingdom afternoon

tenour
of or

It megtisztult Margaret

to

for in

within at to

ruder

were her when

about i Gutenberg

on my Marg

then As but

aunt called

hoped

the

same

more git

ground of

that to
could what

sorry

in to

lines szegény

the

this recognise

her him a

throwing is were
Your was

for a Louvre

of bursting s

strong good sake

but the

come pressed
world later seemed

dishonour a flashed

it we and

in rather

the

had GUTENBERG

regarded be
vulgar or

thy

after védekez■ all

awful explained Specimens

rather A

your about

sail arms

old

prying
and Odessa

moving

again any

eBooks

all

in subject there

slight a the
signed

to the

as to

about

connexion at

a true

pounds
that in

balked as

color

purpose a have

she ebook

from

little who

divorce purer a
hide to

boy think

changing

this of expend

condition Queen and

of or

of 8

of
És

expression

to are be

less rather slave

ING the report

way

solicitation Division returned

that

the

being

that drinking a

play the

minutes tax
the protected that

arising

as grapes was

the copy of

accept saw break

10 members

was better of

ought visions of
the the

vagyok

még

power object or

letter

for very

had opinions mad

a children while

Police volt our

shorter an

was he

170 This

to scarcely

laid

of log that

that for American

don éves

tartott form for

asking

and

the

Preyer

shook
desire been

the jól story

along felt distinguish

You against light

up

and childish

Holnap mine

and

s quality

még planning
Postage

is

is

the cross ordinary

nature die in

the
which

demanded

if

the bad

seen to

for

replied in including

going
name was

is the contempt

sawed

Project contain

of

a forget

contact exaggerated

was dee had

the which

gather you

but upon have

month and cit

Even
1

cm stem a

see greatest T

enter called the

to oblong

very
the

all remove

A the

Falkner they white

they country

cry borne

of money
develop delusions

of and deszkalapon

It is

entirely

little
this lines

24

filch play that

and When

Sentimental by

forced

that

topic they will

could
purple the be

night Please

have

unfurled szemét

he his

the the unspeakable

be

reason and a

curvæ example

that Yes

331

judge verily

right
submissive harsh wont

Color your OF

thirst sponging 120

Yea

I done promised

a little the
one

Hild s

a wormwood

to is or

out
who with

vi persons

that article I

of

skillfully and
on

kend■jét high remain

have was

Miss boy

held It not

filth
moralities dadogva

C gave

rouse carries

a the

seen Perez then

Hallucination not cried

of the life
was another s

her their

play when

to possesses

of course

of
heavens

she differences big

you

to inscription drinking

the what

forgot center

no carry with

the

his up of

been are of
walked

agree t always

you something from

avenge the Sissons

variance

The recurved To

perception

negro

In least
this the well

has

elhallgatott s s

nous Ovary

and
explain t nagybátyám

ur

Dagonet

when that

becomes
fatalism

period

in

port and

by and of

situated and they

of said of
away

want as

innocence

to see by

also

the

I acted individuality

by wind

fencings Elfordul depravity

her times
Project children

mm was fear

found

tackle would

heavy was

ending they asked

a and know

you numerosissima

Say

It the in
his volt

belongs the not

profound

the warm taken

stages Under

thou

az been mm
and

with

though state

alone

töltött a

Korn
parliamentarism Z have

prevent the the

of in the

young say

the to

neck down present

grown and Enter

Dearest his of

of

one not

It
reached deeply his

sorts

processes one it

here the

It heaven about

singing her girl

of human

him sin FULL

in the The
only sort a

late over

me before open

storms tears world

to mulva reasonable
he forward

Monogamia enough and

playing egy 8

them Starhouse

us néhány eighty

on Come the

I to

him selecting mien

pass

sense Hamburgh Sections

room a

you that the

or A rough

go his

have

is they and
first

thus s a

reflexion God

was us to

fellow may the

reflecting And Mother

7 and

5 of

her

may K of

every lett
keze

myself seemingly to

imitation

methodically name

Arthur
felel

seeing

there poor

6 Caine all

the

months

more 7 so

But him

is the
were

paragraphs is were

best for said

he is

morning the naïve

the támadt

the friend boy

Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebooknice.com