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Consumer Behavior
This page intentionally left blank
Consumer Behavior
Buying, Having, and Being
Tenth Edition

Michael R. Solomon
Saint Joseph’s University and
The University of Manchester (U.K.)

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appropriate page within text.

Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.[, publishing as Brady / Prentice Hall / Addison-Wesley.] All rights
reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be
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Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those
designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial
caps or all caps.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Solomon, Michael R.
Consumer behavior / Michael R. Solomon. — 10th ed.
p. cm.
1. Consumer behavior. I. Title.

HF5415.32.S6 2012
658.89342—dc23
2011034097

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-267184-2

ISBN 10: 0-13-267184-0
 BRIEF CONTENTS

Section 1 ● Consumers in the Marketplace 2

Chapter 1 Buying, Having, and Being 4

Section 2 ● Consumers as Individuals 42

Chapter 2 Perception 44
Chapter 3 Learning and Memory 82
Chapter 4 Motivation and Global Values 116
Chapter 5 The Self 164
Chapter 6 Personality and Psychographics 212

Section 3 ● Consumers as Decision Makers 246

Chapter 7 Attitudes and Persuasion 248
Chapter 8 Decision Making 294
Chapter 9 Buying and Disposing 334
Chapter 10 Organizational and Household Decision Making 368

Section 4 ● Consumers and Subcultures 402

Chapter 11 Groups and Social Media 404
Chapter 12 Social Class and Lifestyles 442
Chapter 13 Subcultures 482
Chapter 14 Culture 524

v
This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS

About the Author xiii

Preface xvii
Section 2 ● Consumers
Acknowledgments xxiii as Individuals 42

Chapter 2 ● Perception 44
Section 1 ● Consumers in the
Sensory Systems 45
Marketplace 2 Hedonic Consumption and the Design Economy 47
Sensory Marketing 48
Exposure 57
Chapter 1 ● Buying, Having, and Being 4 Sensory Thresholds 57
Augmented Reality 60
Consumer Behavior: People in the Marketplace 5
Subliminal Perception 60
What Is Consumer Behavior? 7
Attention 62
Consumer Behavior Is a Process 8
Multitasking and Attention 64
Consumers’ Impact on Marketing Strategy 9 How Do Marketers Get Our Attention? 64
Consumers Are Different! How We Divide Them Up 9
Interpretation 68
Marketing’s Impact on Consumers 14 Stimulus Organization 70
Popular Culture 15 The Eye of the Beholder:
What Does It Mean to Consume? 15 Interpretational Biases 71
The Global Consumer 16 Perceptual Positioning 74
The Digital Native: Living a Social [Media] Life 18
Chapter Summary 76
Marketing Ethics and Public Policy 20
Key Terms 77
Needs and Wants: Do Marketers Manipulate
Review 77
Consumers? 21
Consumer Behavior Challenge 77
Are Advertising and Marketing Necessary? 22
Case Study 78
Do Marketers Promise Miracles? 22
Notes 79
Public Policy and Consumerism 23
Consumer Behavior as a Field of Study 29
Where Do We Find Consumer Researchers? 29
Interdisciplinary Influences on the Study
of Consumer Behavior 30 Chapter 3 ● Learning and Memory 82
Should Consumer Research Have an Academic
or an Applied Focus? 32 Learning 83
Two Perspectives on Consumer Research 32 Behavioral Learning Theories 84
Marketing Applications of Classical
Taking It from Here: The Plan of the Book 34
Conditioning Principles 86
Marketing Applications of Instrumental
Chapter Summary 34
Conditioning Principles 92
Key Terms 35
Cognitive Learning Theory 92
Review 35
Consumer Behavior Challenge 36 Memory 94
Case Study 38 How Our Brains Encode Information 95
Notes 39 Memory Systems 96
Nielsen Nugget 41 How Our Memories Store Information 97
vii
viii Contents

How We Retrieve Memories When We Decide

What to Buy 100 Chapter 5 ● The Self 164
What Makes Us Forget? 101
Pictorial versus Verbal Cues: Is a Picture What Is the Self? 165
Worth a Thousand Words? 104 Does the Self Exist? 165
How We Measure Consumers’ Recall Self-Concept 166
of Marketing Messages 106 Fantasy: Bridging the Gap Between the Selves 169
Bittersweet Memories: The Marketing Power Virtual Identity 170
of Nostalgia 108 Consumption and Self-Concept 173
Sex Roles 178
Chapter Summary 109 Gender Differences in Socialization 178
Key Terms 110 Female Sex Roles 181
Review 111 Male Sex Roles 182
Consumer Behavior Challenge 111 Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender (GLBT)
Case Study 112 Consumers 188
Notes 113
Body Image 190
Ideals of Beauty 190
Working on the Body 198
Body Image Distortions 202
Chapter 4 ● Motivation
and Global Values 116 Chapter Summary 203
Key Terms 204
The Motivation Process: Why Ask Why? 117 Review 204
Motivational Strength 119 Consumer Behavior Challenge 205
Needs versus Wants 120 Case Study 206
How We Classify Consumer Needs 125 Notes 207
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 127
Consumer Involvement 129
Levels of Involvement: From Inertia Chapter 6 ● Personality
to Passion 130
The Many Faces of Involvement 131 and Psychographics 212
Values 138 Personality 213
Core Values 139 Consumer Behavior on the Couch:
How Do Values Link to Consumer Behavior? 140 Freudian Theory 215
Conscientious Consumerism: Neo-Freudian Theories 218
A New American Core Value? 144 Trait Theory 220
Materialism: “He Who Dies with the Most
Toys Wins” 146 Brand Personality 223
Psychographics 227
Cross-Cultural Values 147
The Roots of Psychographics 229
Adopt a Standardized Strategy 149
Psychographic Segmentation Typologies 232
Adopt a Localized Strategy 150
Geodemography 234
Cross-Cultural Differences Relevant to Marketers 152
Behavioral Targeting 235
Does Global Marketing Work? 152
The Diffusion of Consumer Culture 153 The Dark Side of Consumer Behavior 236
Emerging Consumer Cultures in Transitional Consumer Terrorism 236
Economies 154 Addictive Consumption 237
Compulsive Consumption 238
Chapter Summary 156 Consumed Consumers 239
Key Terms 156 Illegal Activities 240
Review 157
Consumer Behavior Challenge 157 Chapter Summary 241
Case Study 158 Key Terms 242
Notes 159 Review 242
Nielsen Nugget 163 Consumer Behavior Challenge 242
 Contents ix

Case Study 243 Mental Accounting: Biases in the Decision-Making

Notes 243 Process 306
How Do We Decide Among Alternatives? 312
Product Choice: How Do We Select from the
Alternatives? 317
Section 3 ● Consumers Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts 321
Market Beliefs: Is It Better if I Pay More for It? 322
as Decision Makers 246 Do We Choose Familiar Brand Names Because of Loyalty
or Habit? 324

Chapter 7 ● Attitudes and Persuasion 248 Chapter Summary 327

Key Terms 328
The Power of Attitudes 249 Review 329
The ABC Model of Attitudes 250 Consumer Behavior Challenge 329
Hierarchies of Effects 251 Case Study 330
Notes 331
How Do We Form Attitudes? 253
All Attitudes Are Not Created Equal 253
The Consistency Principle 254
Self-Perception Theory 255 Chapter 9 ● Buying and Disposing 334
Social Judgment Theory 256
Attitude Models 258 Situational Effects on Consumer Behavior 335
Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? 260 Our Social and Physical Surroundings 338
The Extended Fishbein Model 260 Temporal Factors 339
Trying to Consume 263
The Shopping Experience 343
How Do Marketers Change Attitudes? 264 When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Go Shopping 344
Decisions, Decisions: E-Commerce: Clicks versus Bricks 345
Tactical Communications Options 265 Retailing as Theater 348
The Elements of Communication 265 Store Image 349
An Updated View: Interactive Communications 265 In-Store Decision Making 350
New Message Formats 267 The Salesperson: A Lead Role in the Play 353
The Source 268
Postpurchase Satisfaction 354
The Message 273
Just What Is Quality? 354
Types of Message Appeals 277
What Can We Do When We’re Dissatisfied? 355
The Source versus the Message:
TQM: Going to the Gemba 357
Do We Sell the Steak or the Sizzle? 283
Product Disposal 358
Chapter Summary 284 Disposal Options 358
Key Terms 285 Lateral Cycling: Junk versus “Junque” 359
Review 285
Consumer Behavior Challenge 286 Chapter Summary 360
Case Study 288 Key Terms 361
Notes 288 Review 361
Nielsen Nugget 293 Consumer Behavior Challenge 361
Case Study 363
Notes 363
Nielsen Nugget 367
Chapter 8 ● Decision Making 294
We Are Problem Solvers 295
Perspectives on Decision Making 296 Chapter 10 ● Organizational and
Types of Consumer Decisions 298
Household Decision Making 368
Steps in the Decision-Making Process 301
Problem Recognition 301 Organizational Decision Making 369
Information Search 303 Organizational Buyers and Decision Making 370
Do We Always Search Rationally? 304 B2B E-Commerce 374
x Contents

The Family 375 Consumer Behavior Challenge 436

The Modern Family 375 Case Study 437
Animals Are People Too! Nonhuman Notes 438
Family Members 378
The Family Life Cycle 379
The Intimate Corporation:
Family Decision Making 382 Chapter 12 ● Social Class
Sex Roles and Decision-Making Responsibilities 383
Heuristics in Joint Decision Making 387 and Lifestyles 442
Children as Decision Makers: Consumer Spending and Economic Behavior 443
Consumers-in-Training 388 Income Patterns 444
Consumer Socialization 389 To Spend or Not to Spend, That Is the Question 444
Sex-Role Socialization 391 The Great Recession and Its Aftermath 446
Cognitive Development 392
Marketing Research and Children 393 Social Class Structure 447
Pick a Pecking Order 447
Chapter Summary 395 Class Structure in the United States 450
Key Terms 395 Class Structure Around the World 451
Review 396 Social Class and Consumer Behavior 453
Consumer Behavior Challenge 396 Components of Social Class 454
Case Study 398 Status Symbols 462
Notes 398 How Do We Measure Social Class? 466
Lifestyles 469
Lifestyle: Who We Are, What We Do 469
Lifestyles as Group Identities 470
Section 4 ● Consumers Products Are the Building Blocks of Lifestyles 472
and Subcultures 402 Chapter Summary 476
Key Terms 477
Review 477
Chapter 11 ● Groups Consumer Behavior Challenge 478
and Social Media 404 Case Study 479
Notes 479
Reference Groups 406
When Are Reference Groups Important? 406
Types of Reference Groups 409
Conformity 414 Chapter 13 ● Subcultures 482
Opinion Leadership 415
Subcultures, Microcultures, and Consumer Identity 483
How Influential Is an Opinion Leader? 416
Types of Opinion Leaders 416 Ethnic and Racial Subcultures 484
How Do We Find Opinion Leaders? 418 Ethnicity and Marketing Strategies 485
Online Opinion Leaders 420 Ethnic and Racial Stereotypes 487
The “Big Three” American Ethnic Subcultures 490
Word-of-Mouth Communication 421
Negative WOM: The Power of Rumors 424 Religious Subcultures 494
Buzz Building 426 Organized Religion and Consumption 495
Born-Again Consumers 496
The Social Media Revolution 428
Islamic Marketing 497
Social Media and Community 428
Social Networks 429 Age Subcultures 498
Characteristics of Online Communities 430 The Youth Market 500
Gen Y 502
Chapter Summary 434 Tweens 504
Key Terms 435 Big (Wo)Man on Campus 505
Review 435 How Do We Research the Youth Market? 506
 Contents xi

Gen X 507 Popular Culture 545

The Mature Market 507 How Do We Know What’s “In?” 546
High Culture and Popular Culture 548
Chapter Summary 515 Reality Engineering 551
Key Terms 516
The Diffusion of Innovations 557
Review 516
How Do We Decide to Adopt an Innovation? 557
Consumer Behavior Challenge 517
Behavioral Demands of Innovations 559
Case Study 519
Prerequisites for Successful Adoption 560
Notes 519
The Fashion System 561

Chapter Summary 567

Chapter 14 ● Culture 524 Key Terms 568
Review 568
What Is Culture? 525 Consumer Behavior Challenge 569
Cultural Systems 527 Case Study 570
Notes 571
Cultural Stories and Ceremonies 528
Myths 529
Rituals 533
Glossary 577
Sacred and Profane Consumption 541 Index 591
Sacralization 541
Domains of Sacred Consumption 542
From Sacred to Profane, and Back Again 544
This page intentionally left blank
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Michael R. Solomon, Ph.D., is Professor of Marketing and Director of the Center for Con-
sumer Research in the Haub School of Business at Saint Joseph’s University in Philadel-
phia. He also is Professor of Consumer Behaviour at the Manchester School of Business,
The University of Manchester, United Kingdom. Before joining the Saint Joseph’s faculty
in the fall of 2006, he was the Human Sciences Professor of Consumer Behavior at Auburn
University. Before moving to Auburn in 1995, he was chair of the Department of Market-
ing in the School of Business at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey. Professor
Solomon began his academic career in the Graduate School of Business Administration
at New York University, where he also served as Associate Director of NYU’s Institute of
Retail Management. He earned his B.A. degrees in psychology and sociology magna cum
laude at Brandeis University and a Ph.D. in social psychology at the University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill. He was awarded the Fulbright/FLAD Chair in Market Globaliza-
tion by the U.S. Fulbright Commission and the Government of Portugal, and he served as
Distinguished Lecturer in Marketing at the Technical University of Lisbon.
Professor Solomon’s primary research interests include consumer behavior and
lifestyle issues; branding strategy; the symbolic aspects of products; the psychology of
fashion, decoration, and image; services marketing; marketing in virtual worlds; and
the development of visually oriented online research methodologies. He has published
numerous articles on these and related topics in academic journals, and he has deliv-
ered invited lectures on these subjects in Europe, Australia, Asia, and Latin America.
His research has been funded by the American Academy of Advertising, the American
Marketing Association, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the International Council of
Shopping Centers, and the U.S. Department of Commerce. He currently sits on the edito-
rial boards of The Journal of Consumer Behaviour, The Journal of Retailing, and The Euro-
pean Business Review, and he recently completed an elected six-year term on the Board of
Governors of the Academy of Marketing Science. Professor Solomon has been recognized
as one of the 15 most widely cited scholars in the academic behavioral sciences/fashion
literature, and as one of the 10 most productive scholars in the field of advertising and
marketing communications.
Professor Solomon is a frequent contributor to mass media. His feature articles have
appeared in such magazines as Psychology Today, Gentleman’s Quarterly, and Savvy. He
has been quoted in numerous national magazines and newspapers, including Allure, Elle,
Glamour, Mademoiselle, Mirabella, Newsweek, the New York Times, Self, USA Today, and
the Wall Street Journal. He frequently appears on television and speaks on radio to com-
ment on consumer behavior issues, including The Today Show, Good Morning America,
Inside Edition, Newsweek on the Air, the Entrepreneur Sales and Marketing Show, CNBC,
Channel One, the Wall Street Journal Radio Network, the WOR Radio Network, and Na-
tional Public Radio. He acts as consultant to numerous companies on consumer behavior
and marketing strategy issues and often speaks to business groups throughout the United
States and overseas. In addition to this text, Professor Solomon is coauthor of the widely
used textbook Marketing: Real People, Real Choices.
He has three children, Amanda, Zachary, and Alexandra; a son-in-law, Orly; and
two granddaughters, Rose and Evey. He lives in Philadelphia with his wife Gail and their
“other child,” a pug named Kelbie Rae.

xiii
This page intentionally left blank
 NEW TO THIS EDITION!

The tenth edition of Consumer Behavior has been extensively revised and updated to
reflect the major trends and changes in marketing that impact the study of Consumer
Behavior. The most significant changes to the edition are highlighted below:

• A streamlined Table of Contents that organizes material into 14 chapters to enable

instructors to cover one chapter per week in a typical semester.
• Five new end-of-chapter cases and five updated end-of-chapter cases.
• New CB as I See It boxes feature consumer behavior professors and leading research-
ers who share their knowledge of and perspectives on their areas of expertise.
• In partnership with The Nielsen Company, we have added a valuable new feature to the
10th edition. Nielsen Nuggets are data-driven exercises that allow students to analyze
actual data gathered by one of the world’s leading consumer research organizations.
• Strong focus on social media platforms and how they change consumer behavior
• New content added to every chapter, including the following topics and much more:
Ch. 1 • ARG (alternate reality games)
• Open Data Partnership
• Social media and the culture of participation
• Horizontal revolution
• Culture of participation
Ch. 2 • Sound symbolism
• Audio watermarking
• Augmented reality
• Natural user interface
• Brand name imprinting
Ch. 3 • Highlighting effect
• Online memories
Ch. 4 • Productivity orientation
• Sentiment analysis
• Word-phrase dictionary
• Narrative transportation
• Hedonic adaptation
• Flashmobs
• Social games
• Transactional advertising
Ch. 5 • Social badges
• Geospatial platforms
• The torn self
• Goth subculture
Ch. 6 • Media/brand/personality linkages
• Personalized retargeting
xv
xvi New to This Edition

• A typology of anticonsumption
• Addiction to technology
Ch. 7 • Transmedia storytelling
• FTC guidelines on sock puppeting
• Brand endorsements in social media
Ch. 8 • Cultural differences in choice processes
• Social games and game-based marketing
• Variety amnesia
• Behavioral economics
• Sisyphus Effect
Ch. 9 • Purchase behaviors in crowded settings
• Open rates
• Pretailers
• Mental budgets
• Mobile shopping apps
• Incidental similarity
• Sharing sites
Ch. 10 • Skype and family connections
• Families as customer networks
• Sheconomy
• Online dating relationships
• Better Business Bureau’s children’s food and beverage initiative
Ch. 11 • Collective value creation
• Power users/online opinion leadership
• Social media/nodes, flows, etc.
• Social object theory
• Folksonomies
• Flaming, lurkers
Ch. 12 • Digital Divide
• Food deserts
• Online social capital
• Counterfeit luxury goods
• Brand prominence
Ch. 13 • Spiritual-therapeutic model
• Islamic marketing
• Mature consumers online
Ch. 14 • Priming with lucky numbers
• Thai spirit houses
• Madagascar burial ritual
• Street art and public empowerment
 PREFACE

I love to people-watch, don’t you? People shopping, people flirting, people consuming.
Consumer behavior is the study of people and the products that help to shape their iden-
tities. Because I’m a consumer myself, I have a selfish interest in learning more about how
this process works—and so do you.
In many courses, students are merely passive observers; they learn about topics that
affect them indirectly, if at all. Not everyone is a plasma physicist, a medieval French
scholar, or a marketing professional. But we are all consumers. Many of the topics in this
book have both professional and personal relevance to the reader, regardless of whether
he or she is a student, professor, or businessperson. Nearly everyone can relate to the tri-
als and tribulations of last-minute shopping; primping for a big night out; agonizing over
an expensive purchase; fantasizing about a week in the Caribbean; celebrating a holiday
or commemorating a landmark event, such as graduating or getting a driver’s license; or
(dreaming about) winning the lottery.
In this edition, I have tried to introduce you to the latest and best thinking by some
very bright scientists who develop models and studies of consumer behavior. But that’s
not enough. Consumer behavior is an applied science, so we must never lose sight of the
role of “horse sense” when we apply our findings to life in the real world. That’s why you’ll
find a lot of practical examples to back up these fancy theories.

What Makes This Book Different:

Buying, Having, and Being
As this book’s subtitle suggests, my vision of consumer behavior goes well beyond study-
ing the act of buying—having and being are just as important, if not more so. Consumer
behavior is more than buying things; it also embraces the study of how having (or not
having) things affects our lives and how our possessions influence the way we feel
about ourselves and about each other—our state of being. I developed the
wheel of consumer behavior that appears at the beginning of text sec-
tions to underscore the complex—and often inseparable—inter- U M E R B E H
N S A V
relationships between the individual consumer and his or her C O as Decision Ma I O
social realities. 3: Consumerskers R
ulture
s
S ubcsumers
In addition to understanding why people buy things, we d on
a n4 : C
2:

also try to appreciate how products, services, and consump-

a s In

C
tion activities contribute to the broader social world we expe- div o nsu
idu mers s
rience. Whether we shop, cook, clean, play basketball, hang als 1: Consumepr lace
out at the beach, or even look at ourselves in the mirror, the in the Market
marketing system touches our lives. As if these experiences aren’t
complex enough, the task of understanding the consumer increases
when we take a multicultural perspective.

xvii
xviii Preface

We’ll explore these ideas with intriguing and current examples as

132 SECTION 2 Consumers as Individuals
we show how the consumer behavior discipline relates to your daily life.
This German ad hopes to ramp up
involvement with potatoes, a low
involvement product. The ad for ready-to-
Throughout the 10th edition, you’ll find up-to-the-minute discussions
serve potato dishes declares, “Good stuff
from potatoes.”
Source: Courtesy of Unilever/Germany.
of topics such as alternate reality games, transmedia storytelling, sock
puppeting, gripe sites, sexting, bromances, helicopter moms, cosplay,
the sheconomy, and headbanging rituals. If you can’t identify all of these
terms, I can suggest a textbook that you should read immediately!

Going Global
The American experience is important, but it’s far from the whole story.
This book also considers the many other consumers around the world
whose diverse experiences with buying, having, and being we must
understand. That’s why you’ll find numerous examples of marketing
the next day, he spent $1,400 to fly there immediately just to order a cup of coffee in the
and consumer practices relating to consumers and companies out-
nick of time. He chronicles his odyssey on his Web site, starbuckseverywhere.net.39
OK, maybe Winter needs to get a life. Still, his passion demonstrates that involve-
ment takes many forms. It can be cognitive, as when a “gearhead” is motivated to learn
side the United States throughout the book. If we didn’t know it before
all she can about the latest specs of a new multimedia personal computer (PC), or emo-
tional, as when the thought of a new Armani suit gives a clotheshorse goose bumps.40
What’s more, the very act of buying the Armani may be highly involving for people who
the tragic events of September 11, 2001, we certainly know it now:
are passionately devoted to shopping.
To further complicate matters, advertisements such as those Nike or Adidas produce
may themselves be involving for some reason (e.g., because they make us laugh or cry, or
Americans also are global citizens, and it’s vital that we all appreciate
inspire us to exercise harder). So, it seems that involvement is a fuzzy concept, because
it overlaps with other things and means different things to different people. Indeed, the others’ perspectives.
consensus is that there are actually several broad types of involvement we can relate to
the product, the message, or the perceiver.41

Digital Consumer Behavior:

A Virtual Community
Net Profit As more of us go online every day, there’s no doubt the world is changing—and consumer
During the summer of 2011,
behavior evolves faster than you can say “the Web.” The 10th edition continues to high-
in some specially equipped light and celebrate the brave new world of digital consumer behavior. Today, consumers
movie theaters, viewers of
films like Pirates of the and producers come together electronically in ways we have never known before. Rapid
Caribbean: On Stranger Tides and Harry Pot-
ter and the Deathly Hallows—Part 2 wouldn’t
transmission of information alters the speed at which new trends develop and the direc-
just watch the action: They felt the actors’ tion in which they travel, especially because the virtual world lets consumers participate
movements in their seats. Their chairs would
pitch forward, backward, and side-to-side and in the creation and dissemination of new products.
they would experience freefall when a charac-
ter leapt off a cliff. That extra experience added
One of the most exciting aspects of the new digital world is that consumers can in-
$8.00 to the price of the show, but the movie teract directly with other people who live around the block or around the world. As a
industry was betting that many people would
gladly fork it over for a wild ride.3 result, we need to radically redefine the meaning of community. It’s no longer enough
to acknowledge that consumers like to talk to each other about products. Now we share
opinions and get the buzz about new movies, CDs, cars, clothes—you name it—in elec-
tronic communities that may include a housewife in Alabama, a disabled senior citizen
in Alaska, or a teen loaded with body piercings in Amsterdam. And many of us meet up in
computer-mediated environments (CMEs) such as Facebook, Twitter, and Foursquare.
I’m totally fascinated by what goes on in virtual worlds, and you’ll see a lot of material in
this edition that relates to these emerging consumer playgrounds.
We have just begun to explore the ramifications for consumer behavior when a Web
surfer can project her own picture onto a Web site to get a virtual makeover or a corpo-
rate purchasing agent can solicit bids for a new piece of equipment from vendors around
the world in minutes. These new ways of interacting in the marketplace create bountiful
opportunities for businesspeople and consumers alike. You will find illustrations of the
changing digital world sprinkled liberally throughout this edition. In addition, each chap-
ter features boxes that I call Net Profit, which point to specific examples of the Internet’s
potential to improve the way we conduct business.
 Preface xix

But is the digital world always a rosy place? Unfortunately, just as in the “real world,”
The Tangled Web
the answer is no. The potential to exploit consumers, whether by invading their privacy,
preying on the curiosity of children, or simply providing false product information, is al- People get attached to
ways there. That’s why you’ll also find boxes called The Tangled Web that point out some favorite logos—and social
media platforms allow
of the abuses of this fascinating new medium. Still, I can’t imagine a world without the them to learn about any
unsavory changes almost instantaneously.
Web, and I hope you’ll enjoy the ways it’s changing our field. When it comes to the new Gap misjudged consumers’ attachment to
its old logo when it introduced a new one
virtual world of consumer behavior, you’re either on the train or under it. in 2010 without warning fans first. Within
hours, consumers who were loyal to the old
logo were burning up the blogosphere with
indignant posts. Gap wrote on its Facebook
Consumer Research Is a Big Tent: page, “We know this logo created a lot of
buzz and we’rewe re thrilled
thrille tto see passionate

The Importance of a Balanced Perspective Marketing Opportunity

debate unfolding!” As the
heated, the company did
t criticism got more
d an a about-face and
finally surrendered on FFace Facebook: “O.K. We’ve
heard loud and clear that hhat you don’t like the
The choice of a great brand
Like most of you who will read this book, the field of consumer behavior is young, dy- new logo . . . we’re bringing
name is so important that
rring back the Blue
Box tonight.”94
namic, and in flux. It is constantly cross-fertilized by perspectives from many different companies often hire nam-
ing consultants to come
disciplines: The field is a big tent that invites many diverse views to enter. I try to express up with a winner. These experts try to find se-
mantic associations that click because they
the field’s staggering diversity in these pages. Consumer researchers represent virtually evoke some desirable connection. That strat-
every social science discipline, plus a few from the physical sciences and the arts for good egy brought us names such as Qualcomm
(“quality” and “communications”), Verizon
measure. From this blending of disciplines comes a dynamic and complex research per- (veritas is Latin for “truth,” and “horizon”
suggests forward-looking), and Intel (“intel-
spective, including viewpoints regarding appropriate research methods, and even deeply ligent” and “electronics”). The name Viagra
held beliefs about what are and what are not appropriate issues for consumer researchers rhymes with the famous waterfall Niagara.
People associate water with both sexuality
to study in the first place. and life, and Niagara Falls is a honeymoon
mecca. Philip Morris Companies renamed
The book also emphasizes how strategically vital it is to understand consumers. itself Altria Group to convey its expansion
Many (if not most) of the fundamental concepts in marketing emanate from a manager’s beyond cigarettes into packaged foods and
brewing. This word means “high”; as one
ability to know people. After all, if we don’t understand why people behave as they do, brand consultant commented, “I’m not sure
‘high’ is right for a company with many mood-
how can we identify their needs? If we can’t identify their needs, how can we satisfy their altering products in its brand portfolio.”42
needs? If we can’t satisfy people’s needs, we don’t have a marketing concept, so we might These semantic combinations get harder
to find, so some consultants appeal to ourr
as well fold up our big tent and go home! more basic instincts when they focus on link-
ages between Marketing Pitfall
en the raw sounds of vowels and
To illustrate the potential of consumer research to inform marketing strategy, the text consonants (phonemes
(phonemes) and emotional re-
contains numerous examples of specific applications of consumer behavior concepts by sponses. Studies
udies on sound symbolism show w
As recession lingers and
that respondents
ndents who speak different lan-
the cost of raw materials
marketing practitioners, as well as examples of windows of opportunity where we could guages associate
ociate the same sounds with such
skyrockets due to short-
emotion-laden en qualities as sad and insecure,
use these concepts (perhaps by alert strategists after they take this course!). The Market- alive and daring.
ages caused by natu-
aring. To get at these associations,
ral disasters like the Tokyo earthquake and
researchers usually give subjects pairs off
ing Opportunity boxes you’ll find in each chapter highlight the fascinating ways in which nonsense names
manmade ones like the conflict in the Middle
ames that differ in only a single
East, some companies try to camouflage
marketing practitioners translate the wisdom they glean from consumer research into phoneme—for or example, paressa and taressa taressa——
price increases by shrinking the size of pack-
and ask whichhich sounds faster, more daring,
actual business activities. ages instead of charging more. Sometimes
nicer, and so on. They’ve found that sounds
marketers use code words to announce a
that come too a full stop ((pp, bb,, tt,, dd)) connote
change: they may label the smaller packages
slowness, whereas the ff,, vv,, ss,, and z sounds
as greener because there is less plastic or
seem faster. r. Prozac and Amazon convey a
cardboard in a smaller box, more “portable”
The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly sense of speed
eed (of recovery or of delivery).
When naming
when they squeeze products into little carry
aming consultants got the assign-
bags, or “healthier” because smaller amounts
ment to labelel a new handheld personal digital
translate into fewer calories. For example,
assistant (PDA),
PDA), they first thought of Straw-
Kraft brought out “Fresh Stacks” packages
A strategic focus is great, but this book doesn’t assume that everything marketers do is berry becauseuse the little keyboard buttons
for its Nabisco Premium saltines and Honey
resembled seeds. They liked the “berry” part
in the best interests of consumers or of their environment. Likewise, as consumers we Maid graham crackers. Each holds about
of the namee because they knew that people
15 percent fewer crackers than the standard
associated the letter b with reliability and a
do many things that are not so positive, either. We suffer from addictions, status envy, boxes for the same price. But, Kraft notes that
berry communicated
unicated smallness compared to
since the new packages include more sleeves
ethnocentrism, racism, sexism, and many other -isms. Regrettably, there are times when other PDAs.. But a linguist pointed out that
of crackers, they are more portable—and the
“straw” is a slow syllable and the product
marketing activities—deliberately or not—encourage or exploit these human flaws. This needed to have
company notes that as an added benefit the
ave a fast connotation. Voila! The
smaller boxes supply crackers that will be
BlackBerry PDA was born.43
book deals with the totality of consumer behavior, warts and all. We’ll highlight market- fresher when you get around to eating them.
A packaging expert noted that typically, when
ing mistakes or ethically suspect activities in boxes that I call Marketing Pitfall. the economy recovers, companies respond
On a more cheerful note, marketers create wonderful (or at least unusual) things, with a new “jumbo” size product that is usu-
ally even more expensive per ounce. Then the
such as holidays, comic books, Krispy Kreme donuts, nu-jazz music, Webkinz, and the process begins again: “It’s a continuous cycle,
where at some point the smallest package of-
many stylistic options that beckon to us in the domains of clothing, home design, the arts, fered becomes so small that perhaps they’re
phased out and replaced by the medium-size
and cuisine. I also take pains to acknowledge the sizable impact of marketing on popular package, which has been shrunk down.”52
culture. Indeed, the final section of this book captures very recent work in the field that
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