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Essential Linux Device Drivers
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Essential Linux Device Drivers

Sreekrishnan Venkateswaran

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 Contents

Foreword .......................................................................................................................xxi
Preface .........................................................................................................................xxiii
Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................... xxix
About the Author ......................................................................................................... xxx

Chapter 1 Introduction ...........................................................................................1

Evolution ........................................................................................................................ 2
The GNU Copyleft ......................................................................................................... 3
Kernel.org ....................................................................................................................... 4
Mailing Lists and Forums ................................................................................................ 4
Linux Distributions ......................................................................................................... 5
Looking at the Sources .................................................................................................... 6
Building the Kernel ....................................................................................................... 10
Loadable Modules ......................................................................................................... 12
Before Starting .............................................................................................................. 14

Chapter 2 A Peek Inside the Kernel ......................................................................17

Booting Up ................................................................................................................... 18
Kernel Mode and User Mode ........................................................................................ 30
Process Context and Interrupt Context ......................................................................... 30
Kernel Timers ................................................................................................................ 31
HZ and Jiffies ........................................................................................................... 31
Long Delays .............................................................................................................. 33

vii
viii Contents

Short Delays ............................................................................................................. 36

Pentium Time Stamp Counter .................................................................................. 36
Real Time Clock ....................................................................................................... 37
Concurrency in the Kernel ............................................................................................ 39
Spinlocks and Mutexes .............................................................................................. 39
Atomic Operators ..................................................................................................... 45
Reader-Writer Locks ................................................................................................. 46
Debugging ................................................................................................................ 48
Process Filesystem .......................................................................................................... 49
Allocating Memory ....................................................................................................... 49
Looking at the Sources .................................................................................................. 52

Chapter 3 Kernel Facilities ...................................................................................55

Kernel Threads .............................................................................................................. 56
Creating a Kernel Thread .......................................................................................... 56
Process States and Wait Queues ................................................................................. 61
User Mode Helpers ................................................................................................... 63
Helper Interfaces ........................................................................................................... 65
Linked Lists .............................................................................................................. 65
Hash Lists ................................................................................................................. 72
Work Queues ............................................................................................................ 72
Notifier Chains ......................................................................................................... 74
Completion Interface ................................................................................................ 78
Kthread Helpers ........................................................................................................ 81
Error-Handling Aids ................................................................................................. 83
Looking at the Sources .................................................................................................. 85

Chapter 4 Laying the Groundwork .......................................................................89

Introducing Devices and Drivers ................................................................................... 90
Interrupt Handling ....................................................................................................... 92
Interrupt Context ..................................................................................................... 92
Assigning IRQs ......................................................................................................... 94
 Contents ix

Device Example: Roller Wheel .................................................................................. 94

Softirqs and Tasklets .................................................................................................. 99
The Linux Device Model ............................................................................................ 103
Udev ....................................................................................................................... 103
Sysfs, Kobjects, and Device Classes ......................................................................... 106
Hotplug and Coldplug ............................................................................................ 110
Microcode Download ............................................................................................. 111
Module Autoload .................................................................................................... 112
Memory Barriers ......................................................................................................... 114
Power Management ..................................................................................................... 114
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 115

Chapter 5 Character Drivers ...............................................................................119

Char Driver Basics ....................................................................................................... 120
Device Example: System CMOS ................................................................................. 121
Driver Initialization ................................................................................................ 122
Open and Release ................................................................................................... 127
Exchanging Data ..................................................................................................... 129
Seek ........................................................................................................................ 136
Control ................................................................................................................... 137
Sensing Data Availability ............................................................................................. 139
Poll ......................................................................................................................... 139
Fasync ..................................................................................................................... 142
Talking to the Parallel Port .......................................................................................... 145
Device Example: Parallel Port LED Board ............................................................... 146
RTC Subsystem ........................................................................................................... 156
Pseudo Char Drivers ................................................................................................... 157
Misc Drivers ................................................................................................................ 160
Device Example: Watchdog Timer .......................................................................... 160
Character Caveats ........................................................................................................ 166
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 167
x Contents

Chapter 6 Serial Drivers .....................................................................................171

Layered Architecture ................................................................................................... 173
UART Drivers ............................................................................................................. 176
Device Example: Cell Phone ................................................................................... 178
RS-485 ................................................................................................................... 191
TTY Drivers ................................................................................................................ 192
Line Disciplines ........................................................................................................... 194
Device Example: Touch Controller ......................................................................... 195
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 205

Chapter 7 Input Drivers .....................................................................................207

Input Event Drivers ..................................................................................................... 210
The Evdev Interface ................................................................................................ 210
Input Device Drivers ................................................................................................... 216
Serio ....................................................................................................................... 217
Keyboards ............................................................................................................... 217
Mice ....................................................................................................................... 220
Touch Controllers ................................................................................................... 227
Accelerometers ........................................................................................................ 228
Output Events ........................................................................................................ 228
Debugging .................................................................................................................. 230
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 231

Chapter 8 The Inter-Integrated Circuit Protocol ................................................233

What’s I2C/SMBus? ..................................................................................................... 234
I2C Core ...................................................................................................................... 235
Bus Transactions .......................................................................................................... 237
Device Example: EEPROM ........................................................................................ 238
Initializing .............................................................................................................. 238
Probing the Device ................................................................................................. 241
Checking Adapter Capabilities ................................................................................ 244
 Contents xi

Accessing the Device ............................................................................................... 244

More Methods ........................................................................................................ 246
Device Example: Real Time Clock .............................................................................. 247
I2C-dev ....................................................................................................................... 251
Hardware Monitoring Using LM-Sensors .................................................................... 251
The Serial Peripheral Interface Bus .............................................................................. 251
The 1-Wire Bus ........................................................................................................... 254
Debugging .................................................................................................................. 254
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 255

Chapter 9 PCMCIA and Compact Flash ............................................................257

What’s PCMCIA/CF? ................................................................................................. 258
Linux-PCMCIA Subsystem ......................................................................................... 260
Host Controller Drivers .............................................................................................. 262
PCMCIA Core ............................................................................................................ 263
Driver Services ............................................................................................................ 263
Client Drivers ............................................................................................................. 264
Data Structures ....................................................................................................... 264
Device Example: PCMCIA Card ............................................................................ 267
Tying the Pieces Together ............................................................................................ 271
PCMCIA Storage ........................................................................................................ 272
Serial PCMCIA ........................................................................................................... 272
Debugging .................................................................................................................. 273
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 275

Chapter 10 Peripheral Component Interconnect ................................................277

The PCI Family .......................................................................................................... 278
Addressing and Identification ...................................................................................... 281
Accessing PCI Regions ................................................................................................ 285
Configuration Space ............................................................................................... 285
I/O and Memory .................................................................................................... 286
Direct Memory Access ................................................................................................. 288
xii Contents

Device Example: Ethernet-Modem Card ..................................................................... 292

Initializing and Probing .......................................................................................... 293
Data Transfer .......................................................................................................... 301
Debugging .................................................................................................................. 308
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 308

Chapter 11 Universal Serial Bus .........................................................................311

USB Architecture ........................................................................................................ 312
Bus Speeds .............................................................................................................. 314
Host Controllers ..................................................................................................... 315
Transfer Types ......................................................................................................... 315
Addressing .............................................................................................................. 316
Linux-USB Subsystem ................................................................................................. 317
Driver Data Structures ................................................................................................ 317
The usb_device Structure ....................................................................................... 318
USB Request Blocks ............................................................................................... 319
Pipes ....................................................................................................................... 321
Descriptor Structures .............................................................................................. 322
Enumeration ............................................................................................................... 324
Device Example: Telemetry Card ................................................................................. 324
Initializing and Probing .......................................................................................... 325
Accessing Registers .................................................................................................. 332
Data Transfer .......................................................................................................... 335
Class Drivers ............................................................................................................... 338
Mass Storage ........................................................................................................... 339
USB-Serial .............................................................................................................. 345
Human Interface Devices ........................................................................................ 348
Bluetooth ................................................................................................................ 348
Gadget Drivers ............................................................................................................ 348
Debugging .................................................................................................................. 349
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 351
 Contents xiii

Chapter 12 Video Drivers ...................................................................................355

Display Architecture .................................................................................................... 356
Linux-Video Subsystem ............................................................................................... 359
Display Parameters ...................................................................................................... 361
The Frame Buffer API ................................................................................................. 362
Frame Buffer Drivers ................................................................................................... 365
Device Example: Navigation System ....................................................................... 365
Console Drivers ........................................................................................................... 380
Device Example: Cell Phone Revisited .................................................................... 382
Boot Logo ............................................................................................................... 387
Debugging .................................................................................................................. 387
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 388

Chapter 13 Audio Drivers ...................................................................................391

Audio Architecture ...................................................................................................... 392
Linux-Sound Subsystem .............................................................................................. 394
Device Example: MP3 Player ...................................................................................... 396
Driver Methods and Structures ............................................................................... 399
ALSA Programming ................................................................................................ 409
Debugging .................................................................................................................. 412
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 412

Chapter 14 Block Drivers ...................................................................................415

Storage Technologies ................................................................................................... 416
Linux Block I/O Layer ................................................................................................ 421
I/O Schedulers ............................................................................................................ 422
Block Driver Data Structures and Methods ................................................................. 423
Device Example: Simple Storage Controller ................................................................ 426
Initialization ........................................................................................................... 427
Block Device Operations ........................................................................................ 430
Disk Access ............................................................................................................. 432
xiv Contents

Advanced Topics .......................................................................................................... 434

Debugging .................................................................................................................. 436
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 437

Chapter 15 Network Interface Cards ..................................................................439

Driver Data Structures ................................................................................................ 440
Socket Buffers ......................................................................................................... 441
The Net Device Interface ........................................................................................ 443
Activation ............................................................................................................... 444
Data Transfer .......................................................................................................... 444
Watchdog ............................................................................................................... 445
Statistics .................................................................................................................. 445
Configuration ......................................................................................................... 446
Bus Specific ............................................................................................................. 448
Talking with Protocol Layers ....................................................................................... 448
Receive Path ............................................................................................................ 448
Transmit Path ......................................................................................................... 449
Flow Control .......................................................................................................... 449
Buffer Management and Concurrency Control ........................................................... 450
Device Example: Ethernet NIC ................................................................................... 451
ISA Network Drivers ................................................................................................... 457
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ...................................................................................... 458
Network Throughput .................................................................................................. 459
Driver Performance ................................................................................................. 459
Protocol Performance .............................................................................................. 461
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 461

Chapter 16 Linux Without Wires .......................................................................465

Bluetooth .................................................................................................................... 467
BlueZ ...................................................................................................................... 469
Device Example: CF Card ....................................................................................... 471
 Contents xv

Device Example: USB Adapter ................................................................................ 471

RFCOMM ............................................................................................................. 473
Networking ............................................................................................................. 475
Human Interface Devices ........................................................................................ 477
Audio ...................................................................................................................... 477
Debugging .............................................................................................................. 478
Looking at the Sources ............................................................................................ 478
Infrared ....................................................................................................................... 478
Linux-IrDA ............................................................................................................. 480
Device Example: Super I/O Chip ............................................................................ 482
Device Example: IR Dongle .................................................................................... 483
IrComm .................................................................................................................. 486
Networking ............................................................................................................. 486
IrDA Sockets .......................................................................................................... 487
Linux Infrared Remote Control .............................................................................. 488
Looking at the Sources ............................................................................................ 489
WiFi ............................................................................................................................ 489
Configuration ......................................................................................................... 490
Device Drivers ........................................................................................................ 494
Looking at the Sources ............................................................................................ 496
Cellular Networking .................................................................................................... 496
GPRS ..................................................................................................................... 496
CDMA ................................................................................................................... 498
Current Trends ............................................................................................................ 500

Chapter 17 Memory Technology Devices ...........................................................503

What’s Flash Memory? ................................................................................................ 504
Linux-MTD Subsystem ............................................................................................... 505
Map Drivers ................................................................................................................ 506
Device Example: Handheld ..................................................................................... 506
NOR Chip Drivers ..................................................................................................... 511
xvi Contents

NAND Chip Drivers .................................................................................................. 513

User Modules .............................................................................................................. 516
Block Device Emulation ......................................................................................... 516
Char Device Emulation .......................................................................................... 517
JFFS2 ...................................................................................................................... 517
YAFFS2 .................................................................................................................. 518
MTD-Utils ................................................................................................................. 518
Configuring MTD ...................................................................................................... 519
eXecute In Place .......................................................................................................... 520
The Firmware Hub ..................................................................................................... 520
Debugging .................................................................................................................. 524
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 524

Chapter 18 Embedding Linux ............................................................................527

Challenges ................................................................................................................... 528
Component Selection .................................................................................................. 530
Tool Chains ................................................................................................................. 531
Embedded Bootloaders ............................................................................................... 531
Memory Layout .......................................................................................................... 535
Kernel Porting ............................................................................................................. 537
Embedded Drivers ...................................................................................................... 538
Flash Memory ......................................................................................................... 538
UART ..................................................................................................................... 539
Buttons and Wheels ................................................................................................ 539
PCMCIA/CF .......................................................................................................... 540
SD/MMC ............................................................................................................... 540
USB ........................................................................................................................ 540
RTC ....................................................................................................................... 541
Audio ...................................................................................................................... 541
Touch Screen .......................................................................................................... 541
 Contents xvii

Video ...................................................................................................................... 541

CPLD/FPGA .......................................................................................................... 542
Connectivity ........................................................................................................... 542
Domain-Specific Electronics ................................................................................... 542
More Drivers .......................................................................................................... 543
The Root Filesystem .................................................................................................... 544
NFS-Mounted Root ................................................................................................ 544
Compact Middleware ............................................................................................. 546
Test Infrastructure ....................................................................................................... 548
Debugging .................................................................................................................. 548
Board Rework ......................................................................................................... 549
Debuggers ............................................................................................................... 550

Chapter 19 Drivers in User Space .......................................................................551

Process Scheduling and Response Times ...................................................................... 553
The Original Scheduler ........................................................................................... 553
The O(1) Scheduler ................................................................................................ 553
The CFS Scheduler ................................................................................................. 555
Response Times ...................................................................................................... 555
Accessing I/O Regions ................................................................................................. 558
Accessing Memory Regions ......................................................................................... 562
User Mode SCSI ......................................................................................................... 565
User Mode USB .......................................................................................................... 567
User Mode I2C ............................................................................................................ 571
UIO ............................................................................................................................ 573
Looking at the Sources ................................................................................................ 574

Chapter 20 More Devices and Drivers ................................................................577

ECC Reporting ........................................................................................................... 578
Device Example: ECC-Aware Memory Controller .................................................. 579
Frequency Scaling ........................................................................................................ 583
xviii Contents

Embedded Controllers ................................................................................................ 584

ACPI ........................................................................................................................... 585
ISA and MCA ............................................................................................................. 587
FireWire ...................................................................................................................... 588
Intelligent Input/Output ............................................................................................. 589
Amateur Radio ............................................................................................................ 590
Voice over IP ............................................................................................................... 590
High-Speed Interconnects ........................................................................................... 591
InfiniBand .............................................................................................................. 592
RapidIO ................................................................................................................. 592
Fibre Channel ......................................................................................................... 592
iSCSI ...................................................................................................................... 593

Chapter 21 Debugging Device Drivers ...............................................................595

Kernel Debuggers ........................................................................................................ 596
Entering a Debugger ............................................................................................... 597
Kernel Debugger (kdb) ........................................................................................... 598
Kernel GNU Debugger (kgdb) ............................................................................... 600
GNU Debugger (gdb) ............................................................................................ 604
JTAG Debuggers .................................................................................................... 605
Downloads .............................................................................................................. 609
Kernel Probes .............................................................................................................. 609
Kprobes .................................................................................................................. 609
Jprobes .................................................................................................................... 614
Return Probes ......................................................................................................... 617
Limitations ............................................................................................................. 619
Looking at the Sources ............................................................................................ 620
Kexec and Kdump ....................................................................................................... 620
Kexec ...................................................................................................................... 620
Kexec with Kdump ................................................................................................. 621
 Contents xix

Kdump ................................................................................................................... 622

Looking at the Sources ............................................................................................ 629
Profiling ...................................................................................................................... 629
Kernel Profiling with OProfile ................................................................................ 629
Application Profiling with Gprof ............................................................................ 633
Tracing ........................................................................................................................ 634
Linux Trace Toolkit ................................................................................................. 634
Linux Test Project ........................................................................................................ 638
User Mode Linux ........................................................................................................ 638
Diagnostic Tools .......................................................................................................... 638
Kernel Hacking Config Options .................................................................................. 639
Test Equipment ........................................................................................................... 640

Chapter 22 Maintenance and Delivery ...............................................................641

Coding Style ............................................................................................................... 642
Change Markers .......................................................................................................... 642
Version Control ........................................................................................................... 643
Consistent Checksums ................................................................................................ 643
Build Scripts ................................................................................................................ 645
Portable Code ............................................................................................................. 647

Chapter 23 Shutting Down .................................................................................649

Checklist ..................................................................................................................... 650
What Next? ................................................................................................................. 651

Appendix A Linux Assembly ...............................................................................653

Debugging .................................................................................................................. 659

Appendix B Linux and the BIOS ........................................................................661

Real Mode Calls .......................................................................................................... 662
Protected Mode Calls .................................................................................................. 665
BIOS and Legacy Drivers ............................................................................................ 666
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