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PSYCHOLOGY
VCE UNITS 3 AND 4
EIGHTH EDITION

John GRIVAS

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Lynne Kelly

Nicole Letch
Eighth edition published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
155 Cremorne Street, Cremorne, Vic 3121
First edition published 1996
Second edition published 1999
Third edition published 2004
Fourth edition published 2010
Fifth edition published 2013
Sixth edition published 2017
Seventh edition published 2019
Typeset in 10.5/13 pt TimesLTStd
© Bremar Holdings Pty Ltd, 2023
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.
ISBN: 978-1-119-88810-9
Reproduction and communication for educational purposes
The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is
the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the
educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL).
Reproduction and communication for other purposes
Except as permitted under the Act (for example, a fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review), no part
of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, communicated or transmitted in any form or by any means without
prior written permission. All inquiries should be made to the publisher.
Trademarks
Jacaranda, the JacPLUS logo, the learnON, assessON and studyON logos, Wiley and the Wiley logo, and any related trade dress
are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States, Australia and in other
countries, and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
Front cover images: © Boguslaw Mazur / Shutterstock
Illustrated by diacriTech and Wiley Composition Services
Typeset in India by diacriTech
This suite of print and digital resources may contain images of, or references to, members of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
communities who are, or may be, deceased. These images and references have been included to help Australian students from all
cultural backgrounds develop a better understanding of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ history, culture and lived
experience. Wherever possible, culturally sensitive material has been flagged with a disclaimer at the beginning of a subtopic to
help teachers and students navigate the material.
Contents
About this resource��������������������������������������������������������� vii 1.10 Sources of error and their control or
Acknowledgements������������������������������������������������������� xiv minimisation���������������������������������������������������84
1.10.1 Random and systematic errors�������������84
Exam terminology1 1.10.2 Extraneous and confounding
variables�����������������������������������������������87
1.11 Types of extraneous variables and
PSYCHOLOGY — Key science skills and their control�����������������������������������������������������93
research methods 1.11.1 Participant variables������������������������������93
1.11.2 Situational variables������������������������������95
1 Key science skills and research 1.11.3 Demand characteristics����������������������101
methods in psychology3 1.11.4 Experimenter effects���������������������������104
1.1 Overview������������������������������������������������������������4 1.11.5 Placebo effect�������������������������������������108
1.2 Aims, hypotheses and variables���������������������7 1.12 Ethical considerations in psychological
research and reporting��������������������������������112
1.2.1 Aims�������������������������������������������������������7
1.12.1 Defining ethics and ethical standards��112
1.2.2 Hypotheses��������������������������������������������8
1.12.2 Ethical concepts and guidelines����������113
1.2.3 Variables�����������������������������������������������12
1.13 Types of data�������������������������������������������������120
1.3 Scientific investigation methodologies��������22
1.13.1 Primary and secondary data���������������120
1.3.1 Types of research methods�������������������22
1.13.2 Quantitative and qualitative data���������121
1.3.2 Population, sample and sampling���������23
1.13.3 Objective and subjective data�������������123
1.3.3 Sampling techniques����������������������������28
1.14 Data organisation and presentation�����������126
1.4 Controlled experiments���������������������������������36
1.14.1 Tables�������������������������������������������������127
1.4.1 Experimental and control groups�����������36
1.14.2 Graphs�����������������������������������������������128
1.4.2 Random allocation��������������������������������37
1.15 Evaluation of data and research�����������������133
1.4.3 Experimental designs����������������������������40
1.15.1 Percentages���������������������������������������133
1.4.4 Experimental settings����������������������������44
1.15.2 Measures of central tendency�������������135
1.4.5 Advantages and limitations
of experiments��������������������������������������45 1.15.3 Standard deviation as a measure of
variability���������������������������������������������138
1.5 Correlational studies��������������������������������������49
1.15.4 Outliers�����������������������������������������������141
1.5.1 Correlation and causation���������������������52
1.15.5 Reliability and validity��������������������������143
1.5.2 Using correlations to identify important
factors and to make predictions������������53 1.15.6 Conclusions and generalisations���������148
1.5.3 Advantages and limitations of correlational 1.16 Review�����������������������������������������������������������153
studies��������������������������������������������������53
1.6 Self-reports�����������������������������������������������������57 HOW DOES EXPERIENCE
UNIT 3
1.6.1 Interviews���������������������������������������������58 AFFECT BEHAVIOUR AND MENTAL
1.6.2 Questionnaires��������������������������������������59
PROCESSES?162
1.6.3 Focus groups����������������������������������������61
1.6.4 Advantages and limitations of 2 Nervous system functioning165
self-reports�������������������������������������������62
2.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������166
1.7 Observational studies������������������������������������66
2.2 Roles of different sub-divisions of the central
1.7.1 Natural and contrived settings���������������68
and peripheral nervous systems�����������������170
1.7.2 Participant and non-participant
2.2.1 Central nervous system����������������������170
observation�������������������������������������������69
2.2.2 Peripheral nervous system������������������173
1.7.3 Advantages and limitations of
observational studies����������������������������70 2.3 Conscious and unconscious responses to
sensory stimuli����������������������������������������������184
1.8 Case studies���������������������������������������������������75
2.4 Role of neurotransmitters����������������������������189
1.8.1 Advantages and limitations of case
studies��������������������������������������������������76 2.4.1 Glutamate�������������������������������������������191
1.9 Simulation studies������������������������������������������80 2.4.2 Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)����192
1.9.1 Advantages and limitations of 2.5 Role of neuromodulators�����������������������������195
simulation studies���������������������������������81 2.5.1 Dopamine�������������������������������������������195
2.5.2 Serotonin��������������������������������������������197

CONTENTS iii
2.6 Neural mechanisms of memory formation 4.4.3 Punishment����������������������������������������292
and learning��������������������������������������������������201 4.4.4 Factors that influence the effectiveness
2.6.1 Synaptic plasticity and changes to of reinforcement and punishment��������294
connections between neurons������������201 4.5 Comparing classical and operant
2.6.2 Sprouting, rerouting and pruning���������203 conditioning��������������������������������������������������299
2.6.3 Long-term potentiation and long-term 4.5.1 The role of the learner�������������������������299
depression������������������������������������������204 4.5.2 Timing of the stimulus and response���299
2.7 Review�����������������������������������������������������������209 4.5.3 The nature of the response�����������������300
4.6 Social-cognitive approaches to learning���304
3 Stress as an example of a 4.7 Observational learning���������������������������������305
psychobiological process217 4.8 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of
3.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������218 knowing���������������������������������������������������������310
3.2 Internal and external stressors�������������������220 4.9 Review�����������������������������������������������������������313
3.3 Acute and chronic stress�����������������������������221
3.4 Fight-or-flight-or-freeze response in 5 The psychobiological process of
acute stress��������������������������������������������������223 memory325
3.4.1 Fight or flight reactions������������������������224 5.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������326
3.4.2 Freeze reaction�����������������������������������226 5.2 Atkinson–Shiffrin multi-store model of
3.5 Role of cortisol in chronic stress����������������230 memory���������������������������������������������������������328
3.6 The gut–brain axis (GBA)�����������������������������234 5.2.1 Sensory memory���������������������������������330
3.6.1 Gut–brain axis�������������������������������������234 5.2.2 Short-term memory (STM)������������������335
3.6.2 Gut microbiota������������������������������������234 5.2.3 Long-term memory (LTM)��������������������339
3.6.3 Links with stress���������������������������������235 5.3 Brain areas involved in long-term implicit and
3.7 Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) explicit memories�����������������������������������������346
as a biological model of stress�������������������238 5.3.1 Hippocampus�������������������������������������346
3.7.1 Stages of the GAS������������������������������239 5.3.2 Amygdala�������������������������������������������348
3.7.2 Strengths and limitations of the GAS���240 5.3.3 Neocortex�������������������������������������������351
3.8 Stress as a psychological process�������������245 5.3.4 Basal ganglia��������������������������������������353
3.8.1 Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional 5.3.5 Cerebellum�����������������������������������������355
Model of Stress and Coping���������������245 5.4 Role of episodic and semantic memory in
3.8.2 Strengths and limitations of the Lazarus retrieving autobiographical events and in
and Folkman model����������������������������248 constructing possible imagined futures�����360
3.9 Strategies for coping with stress����������������252 5.4.1 Alzheimer’s disease�����������������������������360
3.9.1 Context-specific effectiveness�������������253 5.4.2 Aphantasia������������������������������������������363
3.9.2 Coping flexibility����������������������������������253 5.5 Comparing use of mnemonics by written and
3.9.3 Approach and avoidance coping oral cultures��������������������������������������������������367
strategies��������������������������������������������255 5.5.1 Acronyms�������������������������������������������368
3.9.4 Comparing effectiveness of approach and 5.5.2 Acrostics���������������������������������������������369
avoidance strategies���������������������������256 5.5.3 Method of loci�������������������������������������369
3.10 Review�����������������������������������������������������������261 5.5.4 Aboriginal peoples’ use of songlines���370
5.6 Review�����������������������������������������������������������375
4 Approaches to understand
learning269 HOW IS MENTAL WELLBEING
UNIT 4
4.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������270 SUPPORTED AND MAINTAINED?382
4.2 Behaviourist approaches to learning ��������273
4.3 Classical conditioning as a three-phase 6 The demand for sleep385
process����������������������������������������������������������274
6.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������386
4.3.1 The three-phase model of classical
conditioning����������������������������������������276 6.2 Sleep as a psychological construct������������390
4.3.2 Factors that influence classical 6.3 Measurement of physiological responses
conditioning����������������������������������������279 associated with sleep����������������������������������392
4.4 Operant conditioning as a three-phase 6.3.1 Electroencephalography (EEG)������������393
process����������������������������������������������������������284 6.3.2 Electromyography (EMG)��������������������394
4.4.1 The three-phase model of operant 6.3.3 Electro-oculargraphy (EOG)����������������395
conditioning����������������������������������������285 6.3.4 Sleep diaries���������������������������������������395
4.4.2 Reinforcement������������������������������������289 6.3.5 Video monitoring���������������������������������397

iv CONTENTS
6.4 Regulation of sleep–wake patterns by 8.5 Variations for individuals experiencing stress,
internal biological mechanisms������������������400 anxiety and phobia���������������������������������������492
6.4.1 Circadian rhythms�������������������������������401 8.6 Review�����������������������������������������������������������497
6.4.2 Ultradian rhythms��������������������������������402
6.4.3 Suprachiasmatic nucleus��������������������403 9 Biopsychosocial approach to explain
6.4.4 Melatonin��������������������������������������������404 specific phobia501
6.5 NREM and REM sleep����������������������������������407 9.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������502
6.5.1 NREM sleep����������������������������������������408 9.2 Biological factors�����������������������������������������507
6.5.2 REM sleep������������������������������������������410 9.2.1 GABA dysfunction������������������������������507
6.6 Differences in, and explanations for, the 9.2.2 Long-term potentiation�����������������������509
demands for sleep across the life span�����415 9.3 Psychological factors����������������������������������511
6.6.1 Newborns and infants�������������������������416 9.3.1 Behavioural models����������������������������511
6.6.2 Children����������������������������������������������417 9.3.2 Cognitive biases���������������������������������515
6.6.3 Adolescents����������������������������������������417 9.4 Social factors������������������������������������������������519
6.6.4 Adults�������������������������������������������������417 9.4.1 Specific environmental triggers�����������519
6.7 Review�����������������������������������������������������������422 9.4.2 Stigma around seeking treatment�������520
9.5 Evidence-based interventions in the
7 Importance of sleep in mental treatment of specific phobia�����������������������522
wellbeing429 9.5.1 Biological interventions�����������������������523
7.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������430 9.5.2 Psychological interventions�����������������528
7.2 Effects of partial sleep deprivation�������������432 9.5.3 Social interventions�����������������������������535
7.2.1 Affective functioning����������������������������434 9.6 Review�����������������������������������������������������������540
7.2.2 Behavioural functioning�����������������������436
7.2.3 Cognitive functioning��������������������������438 10 Maintenance of mental wellbeing547
7.3 Comparing effects of one night of full sleep 10.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������548
deprivation vs blood-alcohol concentrations 10.2 Biological protective factors�����������������������550
of 0.05 and 0.10���������������������������������������������442 10.2.1 Adequate nutritional intake and hydration
7.3.1 Cognitive effects���������������������������������442 �����������������������������������������������������������550
7.3.2 Affective effects�����������������������������������443 10.2.2 Adequate sleep�����������������������������������553
7.4 Circadian rhythm sleep disorders���������������446 10.3 Psychological protective factors����������������555
7.4.1 Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS) 10.3.1 Cognitive behavioural strategies����������555
�����������������������������������������������������������447 10.3.2 Mindfulness meditation�����������������������559
7.4.2 Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder (ASPD) 10.4 Social protective factors������������������������������561
�����������������������������������������������������������447
10.4.1 Support from family, friends and
7.4.3 Shift work disorder������������������������������451 community������������������������������������������561
7.4.4 Treatment of circadian rhythm sleep 10.5 Cultural determinants for wellbeing of
disorders through bright light therapy��455 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
7.5 Improving sleep hygiene and adaption to peoples����������������������������������������������������������566
zeitgebers to improve sleep–wake patterns 10.5.1 Cultural determinants��������������������������566
and mental wellbeing�����������������������������������460
10.5.2 Cultural continuity�������������������������������566
7.5.1 Improving sleep hygiene���������������������460
10.5.3 Self-determination�������������������������������568
7.5.2 Adaptation to zeitgebers���������������������461
10.6 Review�����������������������������������������������������������570
7.6 Review�����������������������������������������������������������468
Glossary����������������������������������������������������������������������� 575
8 Defining mental wellbeing475 References�������������������������������������������������������
8.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������476
Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 587
8.2 Ways of considering mental wellbeing�������478
8.2.1 Levels of functioning���������������������������478
8.2.2 Resilience�������������������������������������������480
8.2.3 The Social and Emotional Wellbeing
(SEWB) view of mental wellbeing for
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
peoples�����������������������������������������������482
8.3 Mental wellbeing as a continuum���������������486
8.4 Mental wellbeing as a product of internal and
external factors��������������������������������������������489

CONTENTS v
About this resource

Everything you need


for your students
to succeed

PSYCHOLOGY
VCE UNITS 3 AND 4 | EIGHTH EDITION

Developed by expert Victorian teachers


for VCE students
Tried, tested and trusted. The NEW Jacaranda VCE Psychology series continues to
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Practical teaching advice and ideas for


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Acknowledgements
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xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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