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The Study of Public Management
in Europe and the US

This book presents an overview of the scientific study of public management,

gathering together some of the most authoritative experts in this area of study in
Europe and the United States, writing specifically about their respective coun-
tries. These essays seek to present the national distinctiveness of the study of
public management, in the context of specific state administration.
This book goes further than some previous books concerning public manage-
ment by highlighting the underlying differences between Europe and the United
States, and amongst European countries, in relation to their particular political-
administrative circumstances. The aim of this book is to establish a dialogue
between Anglo-American and European approaches to public management, to
encourage readers to see their own national ideas and practices in contrast to
others and foster learning by asking repeatedly, ‘compared to what?’
This book will be of great interest to students and researchers engaged with
public management, organisation and administration throughout Europe and the
United States.

Walter Kickert is professor of public management at the Department of Public

Administration at the Erasmus University in Rotterdam and scientific director of
the Dutch national research school of administrative and political sciences, NIG.
Routledge studies in public management

1 Unbundled Government
A critical analysis of the global trend to agencies, quangos and
contractualisation
Edited by Christopher Pollitt and Colin Talbot

2 The Study of Public Management in Europe and the US

A comparative analysis of national distinctiveness
Edited by Walter Kickert
The Study of Public
Management in Europe
and the US
A comparative analysis of national
distinctiveness

Edited by Walter Kickert

First published 2008
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
© 2008 Selection and editorial matter, Walter Kickert; individual chapters,
the contributors
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN 0-203-93617-5 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0-415-44386-5 (hbk)

ISBN10: 0-203-93617-5 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978-0-415-44386-9 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978-0-203-93617-7 (ebk)
Contents

List of illustrations vii

List of contributors ix

Foreword xiii
CHRISTOPHER POLLITT

1 Distinctiveness in the study of public management in

Europe. An introduction 1
WALTER KICKERT

2 The study of public management in France. La spécificité du

modèle français d’administration 14
ANNIE BARTOLI

3 The study of public management in Germany. Poorly

institutionalized and fragmented 42
CHRISTOPH REICHARD

4 The study of public management in Great Britain. Public

service delivery and its management 70
STEPHEN P. OSBORNE AND KATE MCLAUGHLIN

5 The study of public management in Norway.

Combination of organization theory and political science 99
TOM CHRISTENSEN AND PER LAEGREID

6 The study of public management in the Netherlands.

Managing complex networks and public governance 122
WALTER KICKERT

7 The study of public management in Switzerland.

Wirkungsorientierten Verwaltungsführung 144
KUNO SCHEDLER
vi Contents
8 The study of public management in Italy. Management and
the dominance of public law 167
MARCO MENEGUZZO

9 The study of public management in Spain. An

interdisciplinary and ill-defined terrain 189
XAVIER BALLART

10 The study of public management in Hungary. Management

and the transition to democratic Rechtsstaat 208
GYORGY HAJNAL AND GYORGY JENEI

11 The study of public management in the United States.

Management in the new world and a reflection on Europe 233
LAURENCE E. LYNN JR

Index 263
Illustrations

Figures
8.1 The adoption of NPM in different regions in Italy 174
9.1 Related disciplines and PA/PM 193

Tables
4.1 Three paradigms of PAM in the UK 86
4.2 Overview of PAM articles by locus, 1999–2005 (September) 87
4.3 Overview of PAM articles by subject, 1999–2005 (September) 88
4.4 Public Administration articles by locus, 1999–2005 (September) 90
4.5 Public Management Review articles by locus,
1999–2005 (September) 91
4.6 Public Administration articles by subject, 1999–2005
(September) 92
4.7 Public Management Review articles by subject,
1999–2005 (September) 93
6.1 Establishment of chairs in public administration up to 1976 128
6.2 Public administration programmes in the Netherlands in 2006 129
8.1 The evolution of public employment after unification 171
8.2 Trust in the civil services (as a percentage) 172
8.3 Clusters in public administration education 175
8.4 Public administration degree programmes in different
faculties in 42 Italian universities 175
8.5 MA programmes in public administration in
different faculties in 42 Italian universities 176
8.6 PhD programmes in public administration in
different faculties in 42 Italian universities 176
8.7 Undergraduate courses on public management in
the 42 surveyed universities 177
8.8 Public management MA programmes in the 42 surveyed
universities 177
8.9 Levers of public management reform in Italy 181
viii Illustrations
8.10 Azienda Pubblica articles classified by research issue 182
8.11 Azienda Pubblica articles classified by level of
government researched 183
8.12 Azienda Pubblica articles classified by research strategy 183
8.13 Internationalization projects achieving financial support
from the Ministry of Education 184
9.1 Public universities: political and administrative sciences
degrees 195
10.1 Academic background of civil servants in local and regional
administration, 1975–2005 220
10.2 Composition of the PA higher education field in
Hungary in 1999 224
10.3 Summary of Hungarian civilian undergraduate programmes
related to public administration or public management,
starting in 2006 225
10.4 Compulsory courses in the largest public administration
and public service programmes 226
Contributors

Xavier Ballart is associate professor of Political and Administrative Sciences at

the Autonomous University of Barcelona. He has also taught at Indiana Uni-
versity (1999–2000) and the College of Europe (2000–2006). His main
research interests and publications are in policy evaluation and innovation in
public management and public administration in Spain and Europe. He has
worked as a consultant for local and regional governments, the European
Commission and the World Bank. He was the first editorial coordinator for
the Spanish Review of Political Science.
Annie Bartoli is professor of Business Administration at the University of Ver-
sailles Saint-Quentin (France), where she holds the positions of co-director of
the Centre of Research in Management, LAREQUOI, and director of the
postgraduate Master in Strategic Management and Change. She is also visit-
ing research professor at Georgetown University, Washington, DC. Professor
Bartoli is author or co-author of 12 books and several dozens of articles in the
fields of strategy, public management, piloting of change, information and
communication. She is also a consultant in management for multinational
companies and public organisations.
Tom Christensen is professor of Public Administration and Organisation
Theory at the Department of Political Science, University of Oslo. His
research interests include studies of central civil service and public reform,
both nationally and comparatively. Among his recent books are Autonomy
and Regulation: Coping with Agencies in the Modern State and Tran-
scending New Public Management: the Transformation of Public Sector
Reform, both edited with Per Lægreid, and a textbook, Organization
Theory for the Public Sector, written with P. Lægreid, P. G. Roness and K.
A. Røvik.
Gyorgy Hajnal is senior research fellow at the MKI/Hungarian Institute of
Public Administration. His research interests are related to, among others,
problems of public management reforms in transitional states, and the com-
parative study of administrative culture. He has served as a consultant to
various domestic and international governmental, academic and corporate
x Contributors
entities. He is the author of about 30 books, book chapters and journal
articles, and numerous conference papers.
Gyorgy Jenei is professor of Public Policy and Management at the Corvinus
University, Budapest. His research interests are in public management
reforms, the functions of the modern state, and the role of civil society organ-
isations in public policy-making and service provision. He has published
books such as Public Policy in Central and Eastern Europe; Institutional
Requirements and Problem Solving in the Public Administrations of the
Enlarged European Union and Its Neighbours; Challenges of Public Man-
agement Reforms: Theoretical Perspectives and Recommendations and
East–West Co-operation in Public Sector Reform (Cases and Results in
Central and Eastern Europe).
Walter Kickert is professor of Public Management at the Erasmus Univer-
sity, Rotterdam. His research interests are in management and organization
of national administration, international comparative public management
and administrative reform. He has published such books as Managing
Complex Networks and Public Management and Administrative Reform
in Western Europe. He has worked at the ministries of Education and
Sciences, and Agriculture, Nature and Fishery, and has done research and
consultancy for various public organizations. He is the deputy-editor of the
European Forum of the international quarterly Public Administration. He
is scientific director of the Dutch national research school for administra-
tive and political sciences, NIG.
Per Lægreid is professor of Administration and Organisation Theory at the
University of Bergen, Norway. He has published extensively on public sector
reform and institutional change in comparative perspective. His latest publica-
tions include articles in Governance, Public Administration, the Journal of
Management Studies, Public Performance and Management Review, Finan-
cial Accountability and Management, the International Public Management
Journal and the International Review of Administrative Sciences. His recent
co-edited and co-authored books are Transcending New Public Management:
The Transformation of Public Sector Reforms, Autonomy and Regulation:
Coping with Agencies in the Modern State and Organization Theory and
Public Organization: Instrument, Culture and Myth.
Laurence E. Lynn Jr is Sydney Stein, Jr professor of Public Management
Emeritus at the University of Chicago. His research interests include Amer-
ican and comparative public management, public administration theory and
public sector governance. His most recent books are Public Management:
Old and New and Madison’s Managers: Public Administration and the Con-
stitution (with Anthony Bertelli). He has held several senior planning and
management positions in the US federal government and is past president of
the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management. He has received
the H. George Frederickson, Dwight Waldo, Paul Van Riper and John Gaus
 Contributors xi
Awards for lifetime contributions to the literatures of public administration
and management and to public service.
Kate McLaughlin is senior lecturer in Local Governance at the University of
Birmingham. Her research interests include local governance, the voluntary
and community sector and public services marketing. Until recently she was
Director of the Public Services MBA at the University of Birmingham. She
has worked extensively with UK government departments on research and
consultancy projects around public management reform.
Marco Meneguzzo is professor of Public and Non-Profit Management at the
University of Rome ‘Tor Vergata’ and contract professor at the Italian Swiss
University of Lugano. His research interests include strategic planning,
interorganisational networks, public sector modernization, helath-care man-
agement and management of cultural heritage agencies. He is Scientific con-
sultant of the Italian Department of Public Administration and has been
responsible for the national innovation award. He has coordinated several
projects for international institutions (such as the EU and the World Bank)
and public administrations at different levels in Italy and abroad.
Stephen P. Osborne is professor of International Public Management in the
Management School at the University of Edinburgh. He worked for 13 years
in local government in the UK before moving to Aston Business School in
1990. He is editor in chief of the journal Public Management Review, editor
of several Routledge book series on public management (including Critical
Studies in Public Management and the Routledge Masters in Public Manage-
ment) and President of the International Research Society for Public Manage-
ment. His research interests include public management reform, the voluntary
and non-profit sector and public services, rural public service provision and
innovation and change in public services.
Christopher Pollitt is professor of Public Management at the Catholic Univer-
sity of Leuven. His main research interests lie in comparative public manage-
ment reform, public service quality improvement and programme evaluation.
Author of many texts (including The Essential Public Manager and Public
Management Reform: A Comparative Analysis), he has also undertaken con-
sultancy for many international governmental organisations and national gov-
ernments. He edits the International Review of Administrative Sciences and is
past president of the European Evaluation Society.
Christoph Reichard is emeritus professor of Public Management at the Univer-
sity of Potsdam. He has worked primarily on public management reforms in
the German-speaking countries but also with an international comparative
perspective. He is also involved in issues of public personnel management,
financial management and e-government. He is affiliated with several
master’s programmes in public management at the universities of Potsdam
and Salzburg.
xii Contributors
Kuno Schedler is professor of Public Management at the University of St
Gallen in Switzerland. His main research interests lie in (new) public man-
agement reform, electronic government, and public financial and perform-
ance management. Author of many texts (including New Public Management
and Managing the Electronic Government), he has also undertaken consul-
tancy for many governmental organisations. He is a co-editor of the Inter-
national Public Management Journal.
Foreword

This book is one of several that currently exemplify the emergence of a broad
community of European scholars of public administration and public manage-
ment that can rival, in breadth and diversity, the long-looked-up-to U.S.
community. It is therefore both a pleasure and an honour to be asked by my col-
league and friend Walter Kickert to contribute a brief foreword. As European
editor of the leading journal Public Administration, and as a perpetually wander-
ing, multi-lingual professor, he is well qualified to launch such a text. I share his
hope that it will not only reinforce the sense of a European community of PA
academics, but will also provide food for thought for our American colleagues,
not all of whom have previously felt the need to look beyond their own capa-
cious borders.
‘Europe’ is an ever-evolving concept, as Norman Davies’s magnificent
attempt at an overall history so clearly demonstrates (Davies, 1996). Even
turning European maps through 90 degrees (as Davies does) so that Ireland
appears at the top, can provoke radical new insights. In the present volume
‘Europe’ even seems to have reasserted its historical colonization of the New
World (hence Chapter 11 on the United States). On the other hand, the book
follows the recent enlargement of the EU only cautiously, with just one chapter
on eastern Europe (Chapter 10 on Hungary). And there is no chapter on the
study of EU institutions themselves. But whatever the precise boundaries, it is
clear that we now have – to a far greater extent than 20 or 30 years ago – a
group of public management academics who, while vigorously insisting upon
their various national particularities, are nevertheless engaged on a common
enterprise. This ‘project’ includes (although is not exhausted by) an extensively
shared agenda and a considerable common pool of theories, concepts and tech-
niques. It is enabled and lubricated by the advent of modern information and
communication technologies, by the increased affordability and simplicity of
long-distance travel, and by the ever-growing domain of the English language.
(There is also the general increase in multi-lingualism within Europe – more
academics of almost every country speaking not only their mother tongue plus
English, but other European languages as well.) The number of European con-
ferences and organizational platforms of one kind and another seems to grow
almost weekly. The Bologna Agreement and other educational initiatives have
xiv Foreword
made it less and less difficult for students and staff to move from one country to
another, and to establish equivalences in qualifications. Within the field of
public administration we have witnessed various schemes for the accreditation
of public administration degrees on a European basis, and for co-operative
approaches to doctoral study.
None of this means some crude ‘convergence’ of European thinking, and still
less the ending of national differences (which several chapters in this book
strongly reassert). But it does mean that sufficiently common agendas and
vocabularies are emerging for the European academic community to talk across
national boundaries. Even within the most traditional and nationally defined of
public administration’s many contributing disciplines – law – we have witnessed
a marked growth in studies of European law and comparative law. And as more
academics move across national boundaries, so do more of their students and
more career public servants. In Europe, international networks are growing and
growing, and this seems highly likely to have important long-term effects that
are not merely institutional but also cultural and political.
One thousand or so years ago Europeans invented the idea of the ‘university’.
It was subsequently exported to every other inhabited continent. More than 200
years ago the study of public administration entered German universities with
the foundation of chairs in ‘cameralistics’. Twenty or so years ago European
academics began to feel the impact of the Anglo-American doctrines now
usually termed the ‘New Public Management’ (NPM). That particular tide has
now faltered and is sliding back down the beach. Meanwhile, we have recently
seen the ‘European Administrative Space’ expand enormously – mainly to the
east (this year’s lively conference of the leading eastern European association
for the study of PA was held in Kiev). This is therefore a most appropriate
moment for a reappraisal of the European study of public administration, and I
commend Walter Kickert and his fellow authors for seizing the opportunity.

Christopher Pollitt
Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium

Bibliography
Davies, N. (1996) Europe: a History, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1 Distinctiveness in the study of
public management in Europe
An introduction
Walter Kickert

Introduction
This book presents an overview of the state of the art of the scientific study of
public management in various European states and the United States, written by
eminent, nationally renowned scholars from the various countries. Examples
are presented of distinctive approaches to the study of public management in a
variety of western European countries ranging from Norway up north in Scan-
dinavia, the United Kingdom in the west, Germany, France, Switzerland and
the Netherlands in the middle, Italy and Spain in the south, to Hungary in the
east of western Europe. Most of the well-known textbooks and handbooks on
public management are Anglo-American oriented. The North American and
English-language audience is of course overwhelmingly large. Books written in
German, French, Italian or Spanish, let alone in ‘small’ languages like Dutch,
Norwegian or Swiss, only have a relatively small national market, and are
hardly known across the border. In this book, authoritative experts in the study
of public management in their respective countries, usually authors of standard
public management textbooks in their countries, present the specific character-
istics of the academic study of public management in their homeland, and place
that in the context of their specific national state and administration. This book
shows the national distinctiveness in the study of public management in a
number of European countries, which, although probably well known to the
inhabitants of those countries, is hardly known to the outside international, pre-
dominantly English-speaking, community. To them this book will, first of all,
be highly informative.
This book seeks to introduce to an Anglo-American audience of public man-
agement scholars various European approaches to the study of public manage-
ment, as well as to inform Europeans about the science of public management as
practised by their neighbours and by America.
The relatively unknown and fairly recent European public management sci-
ences are compared to the well-known, large and established field in the United
States. Moreover a comparison is made between the various approaches in dif-
ferent European countries by relating the scientific characteristics to the speci-
ficities of the respective states and administrations.
2 W. Kickert
This book can enhance self-understanding by encouraging readers to see their
own national ideas on, and practices of, public management in contrast to others,
fostering learning by asking repeatedly ‘compared to what?’

Influence of national states and administrations

This basic question that this book addresses is: what is the influence of develop-
ments in different national states and administrations on the scientific study of
public management within the respective states?
States and administrations in continental Europe strongly differ from the
Anglo-Saxon ones and the United States, and they also considerably differ
amongst themselves. That is reflected in the variety and specificity of the public
management reforms that took place in different European countries (Kickert
1997). The belief in the early 1990s that the worldwide trend of public manage-
ment reforms in Western administrations would tend to converge to one single,
common, universal ‘new public management’ pattern (OECD 1995) has been
refuted since in many comparative studies of public management reforms. The
political-administrative context of a particular country does affect the form and
content of the ‘public management’ reforms in that country. The well-known
and comprehensive comparative analysis of public management reforms by
Pollitt and Bouckaert (2004) provided impressive evidence.
In this book, that comparative line of thought is pursued one step further. The
historical-institutional context of a particular state and administration affects not
only the practice of public management reforms, but also the scientific study
of public management in that country. Unlike the natural sciences, where the
nationality of a researcher is irrelevant for his or her study, in the sciences of
administration the nationality of the researcher does matter. The study of public
administration is dependent on the object of study. The study of administration
can never be detached from the particular national administration within a
country. Because the world consists of many different types of states and admin-
istrative systems, diverse research styles and methods are inevitable. The admin-
istrative variety within Europe and between Europe and the United States is
immense. That is why the study of public administration in different western
European countries differs by country (Kickert and Stillman 1999). A survey of
Public Administration education programmes in continental European countries
(Hajnal 2003) showed three distinct clusters: continental European countries
with a strong political-science component, Nordic countries with a stronger
emphasis on business administration, and southern countries with a predomi-
nance of law in their curricula.
In this book we will show that the academic study of public management is
also influenced by the particular institutional context of state, politics and adminis-
tration in the country concerned. One might assume that the often-asserted conver-
gence of administrative reforms in Western countries has led, by implication, to
a likewise convergent common scientific approach to public management. And to
a large extent this is indeed true. Managerial reforms were mainly caused by the
 Public management in Europe 3
underlying budgetary stress. Hence the need for more effectiveness and efficiency,
more productivity, more value for money. Hence the emphasis on result orienta-
tion, performance indicators, and steering on outputs and results. The development
since the early 1980s of a management science specific to the public sector has
therefore also led to commonalities. Most mainstream Anglo-American textbooks
on public management pay ample attention to output budgeting, steering on
results, client orientation, competition and market testing, and to the usual facets
of management: strategic, organisational, financial, personnel, and information
management (see for example the well-known textbooks by renowned North
American scholars like Bozeman (1989), Denhardt (1993), Lynn (1996), Rainey
(1997) and Straussman (Bozeman and Straussman 1990), or by likewise well-
known British scholars like Ferlie (et al. 1996), Flynn (1990) and Pollitt (1990), or
by the Australian Hughes (1994)). Although French, German, Italian, Dutch,
Swiss and Scandinavian textbooks on ‘public management and organisation’ at
first sight show a remarkable similarity to the mainstream Anglo-American text-
books in paying ample attention to financial management, budgeting, client orien-
tation, marketing and more, a closer look reveals important underlying differences
that are related to their distinct political-administrative circumstances.

Distinctive national approaches

My inquiry into the differences and specificities of national approaches to the
study of public management in Europe started with an analysis of France,
Germany and Italy (Kickert 2005), three clear examples of countries with a dis-
tinctive, typical continental-European, strong legalistic state tradition. This tra-
dition has its roots in the nineteenth-century history of state formation,
particularly the establishment of the Liberal Rechtsstaat in continental Europe,
and the legalistic tradition is still prevailing in these three countries. Legalism
in the French, German and Italian administrations appeared to have a major
impact on the managerial reforms in these countries, especially in the sense that
these were hard to introduce and sustain. The legalistic paradigm fundament-
ally differs from the managerial one. Moreover, the national approaches to the
study of public management also showed remarkable distinct characteristics.
In this book the inquiry is pursued by broadening up that international
perspective to include more European countries, and above all by inviting authori-
tative scholars of public management in the respective countries to present their
national case. Nationally renowned and authoritative experts in the study of public
management were each asked to write a chapter on their country, following a
common format to enable international comparison. As the objective of the book
is to relate specificities in each country’s approach to the study of public manage-
ment to the national specificities of state, politics and administration, the common
format which each author was asked to use in describing his or her country is:

– a brief historical account of the state and its administration;

– a survey of recent developments and reforms in state and administration;
4 W. Kickert
– a state of the art of the study of politics and administration in both education
and research;
– an overview of the specificities of the study of public management in the
national context.

Selection of countries
The rationale for the selection of countries in this book was to include examples
of different types of state traditions. In comparative politics and administration,
three main European state types are usually distinguished. First, the Napoleonic
type of state, with post-revolutionary France as the prime example. Spain and
Italy are typically considered to belong to this type and so does Belgium.
Second, the Germanic type with its Prussian and Habsburg roots, in which
Germany and Austria can be placed. Third, the Anglo-Saxon type, with Great
Britain as the main example. So, of course, the three large, exemplary countries
France, Germany and Britain have been included in the book.
The smaller northern European states, such as the Netherlands and the
Scandinavian countries, are usually considered a mixed form of the Anglo-
Saxon and Germanic types of state. Elsewhere (Kickert and Hakvoort 2000) we
have argued that this does not take into account that a whole range of smaller
states from the far north to the middle of continental Europe – Finland, Norway,
Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria – all have
three characteristics in common: they all have a consensus type of democracy
(Lijphart 1984); they all have a neo-corporatist type of state (Williamson 1989);
and they have socio-political cleavages and fragmented political and social
subcultures. So, three examples of these small continental-European states –
Norway, the Netherlands and Switzerland – have been included in the book.
Although the southern European states Italy, Spain and Portugal are com-
monly considered as examples of the Napoleonic type of state, they have a
number of economic, social and political characteristics in common that make
them distinctive. A distinctive southern model of politics and administration
might be discerned (Magone 2003). Southern European countries are often
underrepresented in comparative studies of government and administration.
Even after the end of the dictatorships (the military revolution in Portugal in
April 1974, the fall of the colonels in Greece in July 1974, and the death of
Franco in Spain in November 1975) and the transitions to democracy, the inter-
est of the international political and administrative science community in the
states, politics and administrations of such countries remains restricted, even in
the field of comparative politics and government, let alone in public manage-
ment. So two major southern European states – Italy and Spain – were
included.
Another type of state that is becoming increasingly important in the future
western Europe, are the ‘new’ European democracies, the former communist
countries of middle Europe, the new member states of the European Union. The
transition to free market economy and parliamentary democracy represented
 Public management in Europe 5
much more fundamental and urgent reforms of these states and administrations
than the budget-driven efficiency reforms of public management. Moreover the
modernisation and Europeanisation of these states (Goetz 2001) requires them
first to restore the legalistic principles of the Rechtsstaat before embarking on
the path of public management. So the example of the central European state of
Hungary has been included in the book.
Finally we have invited a leading North American public management
scholar, who is also well-acknowledged in the field of public management in
Britain, France and Germany (Lynn 2006), to present his view on the study of
public management in the ‘New World’ and to give a critical reflection from the
other side of the Atlantic Ocean on the various European approaches.

Different state models in Europe

Before introducing the various authors and chapters, a brief further elaboration
of the analytical rationale behind the country selection – the different traditions
and types of states and administrations in Europe – seems appropriate. The vast
literature on comparative politics and government contains many different
typologies, which roughly speaking come down to the three categories: ‘politics
and society’ (types of parliament, election systems, political parties, cultures,
social movements, interest groups, etc.); ‘state and government’ (types of consti-
tutions, governments, cabinets, parliaments, judiciary, etc.); and ‘administration’
(types of bureaucracies, politics-bureaucracy relations, organisation, recruit-
ment, culture, etc.) (see e.g. Hague et al. 1992). Here, no attempt is made to
carry out a comprehensive comparative analysis along all these dimensions. We
will only briefly highlight a few features that are especially relevant to various
country chapters, and that are often relatively neglected.
We begin with a historical account of the Napoleonic and Germanic
Rechtsstaat traditions which shaped not only France and Germany but many
other continental states as well. We then proceed by showing why the Mediter-
ranean states, which are supposedly examples of the Napoleonic type, might be
considered as a distinct southern European type. We then turn to the typical
characteristics of a vast range of small continental European states, that is con-
sensus democracy in a fragmented society, and corporatist state relations with
interest groups. The Netherlands and Switzerland are typical examples. And
although Scandinavia forms a somewhat deviant type, Norway is also an
example of a consensual corporatist state.

Napoleonic and Germanic Rechtsstaat model

Many continental European countries have a strong legalistic state tradition,
France and Germany being the prime examples. The Napoleonic state model, in
which the nation state is united and the state serves the general interest, the
administration is centralised, hierarchical, uniform, accountable and controlled,
and state officials are highly trained and qualified, and organised in professional
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