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Informed Design of
Educational Technologies
in Higher Education:
Enhanced Learning and
Teaching
Anders D. Olofsson
Umeå University, Sweden

J. Ola Lindberg
Mid Sweden University, Sweden

http://avaxhome.ws/blogs/ChrisRedfield
Senior Editorial Director: Kristin Klinger
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Informed design of educational technologies in higher education: enhanced learning and teaching / Anders D. Olofsson and
J. Ola Lindberg, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: “This book presents recent and important theoretical and practical advances in educational technology design in
higher education, examining their possibilities for enhancing teaching and learning”--Provided by publisher.
ISBN 978-1-61350-080-4 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-61350-081-1 (ebook) -- ISBN 978-1-61350-082-8 (print & perpetual
access) 1. Education, Higher--Computer-assisted instruction. 2. Education, Higher--Effect of technological innovations on.
3. Educational technology. I. Olofsson, Anders D., 1973- II. Lindberg, J. Ola, 1966-
LB2395.7.I546 2012
378.1’734--dc22
2011013012

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
Editorial Advisory Board
Anders D. Olofsson, Umeå University, Sweden
J. Ola Lindberg, Mid Sweden University, Sweden
Gregory Anderson, University of the Fraser Valley, Canada
Marcie Boucouvalas, Virginia Tech Graduate Center, USA
Erik Borglund, Mid Sweden University, Sweden
Henk Eijkman, University of New South Wales at the Australian Defence Force Academy, Australia
Stefan Hrastinski, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
Jianli Jiao, South China Normal University, China
Monica Liljeström, Umeå University, Sweden
Simon Lindgren, Umeå University, Sweden
Ġorġ Mallia, University of Malta, Malta
Guy Merchant, Sheffield Hallam University, UK
Urban Nuldén, Gothenburg University, Sweden
C.-J. Orre, Umeå University, Sweden
Hans Rystedt, Gothenburg University, Sweden
Tor Söderström, Umeå University, Sweden
Table of Contents

Foreword.............................................................................................................................................. xvi

Preface................................................................................................................................................xviii

Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................ xxx

Section 1
Aspects of the Research Field

Chapter 1
The Influence Upon Design of Differing Conceptions of Teaching and Learning with Technology..........1
Adrian Kirkwood, The Open University, UK
Linda Price, The Open University, UK

Chapter 2
The Outcomes-Based Approach: Concepts and Practice in Curriculum and
Educational Technology Design............................................................................................................ 21
Maureen Tam, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong

Chapter 3
Instructional Design for Technology-Based Systems............................................................................ 38
Gary R. Morrison, Old Dominion University, USA
Gary J. Anglin, University of Kentucky, USA

Chapter 4
The Next Generation: Design and the Infrastructure for Learning in a Mobile
and Networked World............................................................................................................................ 57
Agnes Kukulska-Hulme, The Open University, UK
Chris Jones, The Open University, UK
 Section 2
Integrating Arenas Through Designed Learning and Teaching

Chapter 5
Using Online Data for Student Investigations in Biology and Ecology................................................ 80
Nancy M. Trautmann, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, USA
Colleen M. McLinn, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, USA

Chapter 6
Towards an Activity-Driven Design Method for Online Learning Resources.................................... 101
Trond Eiliv Hauge, University of Oslo, Norway
Jan Arild Dolonen, University of Oslo, Norway

Chapter 7
Informed Design of Educational Activities in Online Learning Communities.................................... 118
Urban Carlén, University of Skövde, Sweden
Berner Lindström, University of Gothenburg, Sweden

Chapter 8
Boundless Writing: Applying a Transactional Approach to Design of a Thesis Course
in Higher Education............................................................................................................................. 135
Jimmy Jaldemark, Mid Sweden University, Sweden

Chapter 9
Authentic Tasks Online: Two Experiences.......................................................................................... 152
Tel Amiel, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil
Jan Herrington, Murdoch University, Australia

Section 3
Emerging Educational Technologies

Chapter 10
Designing for Learning in Computer-Assisted Health Care Simulations............................................ 167
Lars O. Häll, Umeå University, Sweden
Tor Söderström, Umeå University, Sweden

Chapter 11
The Impact of Instructional Simulation Use on Teaching and Learning: A Case Study..................... 193
Michael C. Johnson, Brigham Young University, USA
Charles R. Graham, Brigham Young University, USA
Su-Ling Hsueh, Brigham Young University, USA
Chapter 12
3D Virtual Worlds in Higher Education............................................................................................... 212
Lucia Rapanotti, The Open University, UK
Shailey Minocha, The Open University, UK
Leonor Barroca, The Open University, UK
Maged N. Kamel Boulos, University of Plymouth, UK
David R. Morse, The Open University, UK

Chapter 13
Debating Across Borders..................................................................................................................... 241
Mats Deutschmann, Umeå University, Sweden

Chapter 14
Designing Learning Ecosystems for Mobile Social Media................................................................. 270
Jari Multisilta, University of Helsinki, Finland

Chapter 15
Mobile Learning in Higher Education................................................................................................. 292
Rui Zeng, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, USA
Eunice Luyegu, Franklin University, USA

Chapter 16
Designing for Active Learning: Putting Learning into Context with Mobile Devices........................ 307
Carl Smith, London Metropolitan University, UK
Claire Bradley, London Metropolitan University, UK
John Cook, London Metropolitan University, UK
Simon Pratt-Adams, Anglia Ruskin University, UK

Section 4
Informed Design Models and Educational Technology

Chapter 17
Fostering NCL in Higher Education: New Approaches for Integrating Educational
Technology Instructional Design into Teachers’ Practice.................................................................... 331
Serena Alvino, Institute for Educational Technologies, National Research Council, Italy
Guglielmo Trentin, Institute for Educational Technologies, National Research Council, Italy

Chapter 18
Social Network Informed Design for Learning with Educational Technology................................... 352
Caroline Haythornthwaite, University of British Columbia, Canada
Maarten de Laat, Open Universiteit Nederland, The Netherlands
Chapter 19
Designing a Model for Enhanced Teaching and Meaningful E-Learning........................................... 375
Heli Ruokamo, University of Lapland, Finland
Päivi Hakkarainen, University of Lapland, Finland
Miikka Eriksson, University of Lapland, Finland

Chapter 20
An Ecological Approach to Instructional Design: The Learning Synergy of Interaction
and Context.......................................................................................................................................... 393
Paul Resta, The University of Texas at Austin, USA
Debby Kalk, The University of Texas at Austin, USA

Chapter 21
Multi-Faceted Professional Development Models Designed to Enhance Teaching and Learning
within Universities............................................................................................................................... 412
Donald E. Scott, University of Calgary, Canada
Shelleyann Scott, University of Calgary, Canada

Section 5
Changing Educational Practices Through Informed Choices of Design

Chapter 22
The Design of Learning Materials within Small Scale Projects: What is the Value of an Action
Research Approach?............................................................................................................................. 437
Michael Hammond, University of Warwick, UK
Jie Hu, University of Chongqing, China

Chapter 23
Instructional Technical and Pedagogical Design: Teaching Future Teachers
Educational Technology....................................................................................................................... 452
Anne T. Ottenbreit-Leftwich, Indiana University, USA
Mark O. Millard, Indiana University, USA
Peter van Leusen, Indiana University, USA

Chapter 24
Priorities in the Classroom:Pedagogies for High Performance Learning Spaces................................ 474
Robert Emery Smith, Stanford University, USA
Helen L. Chen, Stanford University, USA
Menko Johnson, Stanford University, USA
Alyssa J. O’Brien, Stanford University, USA
Cammy Huang-DeVoss, Stanford University, USA

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 496

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 510
Detailed Table of Contents

Foreword.............................................................................................................................................. xvi

Preface................................................................................................................................................xviii

Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................ xxx

Section 1
Aspects of the Research Field

This first section introduces the different themes of the book, and offers a solid foundation for understand-
ing this particular field of research. It will help to frame the reading of the other chapters in the book,
in specific this section includes chapters dealing with learning and teaching, educational planning and
assessment, as well as educational technology and the relation to instructional design.

Chapter 1
The Influence Upon Design of Differing Conceptions of Teaching and Learning with Technology..........1
Adrian Kirkwood, The Open University, UK
Linda Price, The Open University, UK

This chapter considers how varying conceptions of teaching and learning with technology have an impact
upon how teachers design teaching and learning. It is concluded that promoting increased use of tech-
nology does little, if anything, to improve student learning. It is only by attending to higher education
teachers’ conceptions of teaching and learning with technology and supporting change in this area that
significant progress will be achieved.

Chapter 2
The Outcomes-Based Approach:Concepts and Practice in Curriculum and
Educational Technology Design............................................................................................................ 21
Maureen Tam, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong

Adressed in this chapter is the emerging trend of an outcomes-based approach to curriculum improve-
ment in higher education. Practical considerations for curriculum and educational technology design
are presented; the advantages and disadvantages of adopting an outcomes-based approach is critically
reviewed; and the caveats of inappropriate use in curriculum and instructional design in higher educa-
tion are discussed.
Chapter 3
Instructional Design for Technology-Based Systems............................................................................ 38
Gary R. Morrison, Old Dominion University, USA
Gary J. Anglin, University of Kentucky, USA

The authors of this chapter show how existing instructional design models are capable of guiding the
design of instruction for a variety of technologies. The features of design models, instructional interac-
tions, technological affordances, and the importance of research-based instructional strategies are some
issues addressed.

Chapter 4
The Next Generation: Design and the Infrastructure for Learning in a Mobile
and Networked World............................................................................................................................ 57
Agnes Kukulska-Hulme, The Open University, UK
Chris Jones, The Open University, UK

Using recent experience at The Open University as a case study, this chapter explores how institutional
decisions relate to design,. The relationship between institutional decisions and learner-focused design is
illuminated in a review of research on learner practices in mobile and networked learning. Future research
directions focusing on the changing context for learning, a distinction between place and space, and an
understanding of how the different levels of educational systems interact with mobile and networked
technologies are also suggested.

Section 2
Integrating Arenas Through Designed Learning and Teaching

The second section in this book includes five chapters that in various ways show how educational
technologies can be used in order to integrate different arenas related to higher education. It is demon-
strated throughout the section how learning and teaching processes can be enhanced through theoreti-
cally informed, systematic, and research based design of the educational activities. Also addressed is
how different participants or group of participants in higher education can share common spaces for
educational purposes.

Chapter 5
Using Online Data for Student Investigations in Biology and Ecology................................................ 80
Nancy M. Trautmann, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, USA
Colleen M. McLinn, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, USA

This chapter illustrates how to overcome difficulties in providing research experiences in large under-
graduate classes using large and rapidly growing online databases, including ecological data derived
through citizen science and behavioral data available through Cornell University’s archive of sound and
video. These database investigations enable undergraduates to conduct ecological and biological research
in any setting, even where fieldwork is impossible, they set the scene for student fieldwork, and make
it possible for students to view their field data within the context of broader temporal and geographic
trends. It is argued that this way to carry out education instills in students the skills needed in order to
become informed citizens in an ever-changing and networked world.

Chapter 6
Towards an Activity-Driven Design Method for Online Learning Resources.................................... 101
Trond Eiliv Hauge, University of Oslo, Norway
Jan Arild Dolonen, University of Oslo, Norway

Focusing on the challenges of developing an activity– driven design method for online resources in an
education programme for school leaders, this chapter uses an experimental design method grounded in
Cultural–Historical Activity Theory (CHAT), and contributes within CHAT in terms of moving from the
current use of CHAT as a descriptive evaluation tool between analysis and design or design and redesign
towards a more developmental model.

Chapter 7
Informed Design of Educational Activities in Online Learning Communities.................................... 118
Urban Carlén, University of Skövde, Sweden
Berner Lindström, University of Gothenburg, Sweden

Due to the internet, possible arenas for students and professionals to meet have grown rapidly. This
chapter is based on findings from a case study concerning participation in a professional Online Learn-
ing Community (OLC) in general medicine. Discussed are design implications for organizing online
educational activities in higher education that will intentionally engage medical students and profes-
sionals in the field.

Chapter 8
Boundless Writing: Applying a Transactional Approach to Design of a Thesis Course
in Higher Education............................................................................................................................. 135
Jimmy Jaldemark, Mid Sweden University, Sweden

This chapter discusses the application of a transactional approach to educational design, in the chapter
applied to the practice of supervision in a thesis course. Inspired by scholars such as Bakhtin, Dewey,
and Vygotsky the applied transactional approach expands on ideas such as dialogues and educational
settings. The author argues that such a theoretical approach will support the students in conducting dia-
logues around problems related to research tasks in combination to enhance the practice of supervision.

Chapter 9
Authentic Tasks Online: Two Experiences.......................................................................................... 152
Tel Amiel, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil
Jan Herrington, Murdoch University, Australia

This chapter presents an exploration of the design and methods of two instantiations of authentic learning
tasks in online learning environments. The chapter demonstrates a range of possibilities for the instruc-
tor interested in more informed design of technology-based learning environments in higher education,
and in particular, the design and creation of authentic learning tasks.It is argued that there is a need for a
critical analysis of existing educational technologies to promote a learning environment that is engaging
students in meaningful learning activities.

Section 3
Emerging Educational Technologies

The last ten years has seen an increase of available educational technologies, technologies becoming
more and more advanced and offering greater possibilities for innovative educational activities than ever
before. In this section, some of these emerging educational technologies and practices are presented.
Throughout the included chapters it is stressed that teaching and learning in higher education but must
be supported by informed design and use of available technologies.

Chapter 10
Designing for Learning in Computer-Assisted Health Care Simulations............................................ 167
Lars O. Häll, Umeå University, Sweden
Tor Söderström, Umeå University, Sweden

This chapter concerns designing for learning in educational computer-assisted simulations (ECAS) in
health care education (HCE). Drawing upon the works of Luckin (2008, 2010) empirical data from two
studies from the Learning Radiology in Simulated Environments project, are discussed. More specifi-
cally, the authors argue for the need of an informed design of simulations and its use in higher medical
and health care education.

Chapter 11
The Impact of Instructional Simulation Use on Teaching and Learning: A Case Study..................... 193
Michael C. Johnson, Brigham Young University, USA
Charles R. Graham, Brigham Young University, USA
Su-Ling Hsueh, Brigham Young University, USA

This chapter addresses the more prevalent usage of simulation in education. A case study of a specific
computer-based instructional simulation, the Virtual Audiometer, and instructor and student perspectives
regarding the simulation use’s effects on teaching and learning is presented. Findings are described within
a model of five areas in which technology can effect education: visualization, authentic engagement,
quality and quantity of practice and feedback, interaction and collaboration, and reflection.

Chapter 12
3D Virtual Worlds in Higher Education............................................................................................... 212
Lucia Rapanotti, The Open University, UK
Shailey Minocha, The Open University, UK
Leonor Barroca, The Open University, UK
Maged N. Kamel Boulos, University of Plymouth, UK
David R. Morse, The Open University, UK

3D virtual worlds have rather rapidly made its way into the educational arena.This chapter makes a con-
tribution towards an understanding of how 3D virtual worlds can be designed and deployed effectively
in the education domain by reporting on three notable case studies at the authors’ own institutions, which
have pioneered the use of Second Life, a 3D virtual world, in higher education.

Chapter 13
Debating Across Borders..................................................................................................................... 241
Mats Deutschmann, Umeå University, Sweden

By describing how theoretical frameworks including the Ecology of Language Learning (van Lier,
2004), the Five Stage Model of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (Salmon, 2004) and Ac-
tivity Theory (Leont’ev, 1978) can be used in order to address different aspects of the design of virtual
world environments such as Second Life® (SL), this chapter reports on a case study aimed at the design
and initial implementation of a telecollaborative language learning activity between four universities.

Chapter 14
Designing Learning Ecosystems for Mobile Social Media................................................................. 270
Jari Multisilta, University of Helsinki, Finland

The last five years or so has seen an increased interest from higher education institutions in social media.
In this chapter, much of the existing research on eLearning, mobile learning and multimodal learning
are discussed and reviewed and a framework based on Activity Theory (AT) and Experiential Learning
Theory (ELT).for designing and analyzing learning activities in learning ecosystems that are based on
mobile and social media is presented.

Chapter 15
Mobile Learning in Higher Education................................................................................................. 292
Rui Zeng, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, USA
Eunice Luyegu, Franklin University, USA

Mobile learning offer new technical capabilities for higher education. This chapter focuses on various
dimensions of mobile learning, including definitions, theoretical dimensions, mobile learning applica-
tions in higher education, and provides broad definitions and discussions of mobile learning drawing
upon existing work. By exploring the experiences and views of various researchers, the chapter reveals
the opportunities and challenges involved with mobile learning.

Chapter 16
Designing for Active Learning: Putting Learning into Context with Mobile Devices........................ 307
Carl Smith, London Metropolitan University, UK
Claire Bradley, London Metropolitan University, UK
John Cook, London Metropolitan University, UK
Simon Pratt-Adams, Anglia Ruskin University, UK

This chapter will focus on the design, implementation and evaluation of a recent location based, context
aware system for urban education students, trainee teachers and language learning students. A major
conclusion is that there is much to commend the Zone of Proximal Development context sensitive design
as a catalyst for active learning.
 Section 4
Informed Design Models and Educational Technology

Over the years, research and practices related to instructional design and educational technology design
have often been demonstrated through the use of different kind of models. In this section, five chapters
provide innovative and challenging design models to enhance teaching and learning in higher educa-
tion in theoretically informed ways.

Chapter 17
Fostering NCL in Higher Education: New Approaches for Integrating Educational
Technology Instructional Design into Teachers’ Practice.................................................................... 331
Serena Alvino, Institute for Educational Technologies, National Research Council, Italy
Guglielmo Trentin, Institute for Educational Technologies, National Research Council, Italy

The focus of this chapter is a specific proposal aimed to foster the wide diffusion of Educational Technol-
ogy (ET) and Networked Collaborative Learning (NCL) in higher education (HE). In this perspective
the chapter analyses the main barriers that limit the diffusion of Network-Based Educational Technology
(NBET) approaches, in particular NCL, and then, in order to overcome them, presents an innovative
approach to faculty training in Educational Technology Instructional Design.

Chapter 18
Social Network Informed Design for Learning with Educational Technology................................... 352
Caroline Haythornthwaite, University of British Columbia, Canada
Maarten de Laat, Open Universiteit Nederland, The Netherlands

There exists a rather extensive body of research on social network. This chapter draws on this research
and discusses and illustrates how knowledge of social networks can be used to inform social and tech-
nical design for learning and teaching in higher education. The chapter introduces the social network
perspective and how this can be used to explore learning teaching and professional development with
educational technology.

Chapter 19
Designing a Model for Enhanced Teaching and Meaningful E-Learning........................................... 375
Heli Ruokamo, University of Lapland, Finland
Päivi Hakkarainen, University of Lapland, Finland
Miikka Eriksson, University of Lapland, Finland

In this chapter, the authors introduce and discuss the informed design of a specific pedagogical model in
the context of higher education, the model of Enhanced Teaching and Meaningful e-Learning. Presented
is first a theoretical framework for the design of the model, taking into account previous models and
characteristics of meaningful learning, and the possibilities to design, implement, and evaluate the use
of educational technology in the context of higher education is given.
Chapter 20
An Ecological Approach to Instructional Design: The Learning Synergy of Interaction
and Context.......................................................................................................................................... 393
Paul Resta, The University of Texas at Austin, USA
Debby Kalk, The University of Texas at Austin, USA

Today researchers and teachers in higher education seek possibilities for engaging students in authentic
learning experiences that can help them to develop deep understandings of their learning objects. This
chapter address the confluence of collaborative and social technologies, with the phenomenon of digital
natives, creating new opportunities for learning environments which demand innovative instructional
design strategies. An ecological approach to instructional design that requires identifying the key con-
textual factors and interactions that are central to understanding and performing complex intellectual
tasks can yield rich learning environments that provide learners with authentic experiences.

Chapter 21
Multi-Faceted Professional Development Models Designed to Enhance Teaching and Learning
within Universities............................................................................................................................... 412
Donald E. Scott, University of Calgary, Canada
Shelleyann Scott, University of Calgary, Canada

Universities of today and tomorrow will constantly be challenged by new innovative educational
technologies. In this chapter two technology-oriented models are presented, designed to promote ef-
fective pedagogically-focused professional development. Two mixed method case studies of students’
and academics’ experiences of online and blended teaching and learning informed the design of these
multi-faceted models.

Section 5
Changing Educational Practices Through Informed Choices of Design

There is a constant need for well-informed decisions to change educational practices and activities
embraced by educational technologies in higher education. In this fifth and last section of the book,
three different approaches for promoting successful changes in educational technology rich contexts are
presented. The chapters all communicate a rational for change through informed design.

Chapter 22
The Design of Learning Materials within Small Scale Projects: What is the Value of an Action
Research Approach?............................................................................................................................. 437
Michael Hammond, University of Warwick, UK
Jie Hu, University of Chongqing, China

This chapter discusses the design of learning materials in the context of small scale projects within
higher education. It suggests that action research approaches may be of value in the design of instruc-
tional material as they offer systematic, formative feedback at an early stage in the design process and
prioritise user participation. At the same time, the authors stress the need to pay close attention to the
tension between the different stakeholders involved in an action research process
Chapter 23
Instructional Technical and Pedagogical Design: Teaching Future Teachers
Educational Technology....................................................................................................................... 452
Anne T. Ottenbreit-Leftwich, Indiana University, USA
Mark O. Millard, Indiana University, USA
Peter van Leusen, Indiana University, USA

An important task for universities around the globe is to prepare future teacher students to use educational
technology. This chapter discus how a conceptual guide for technology teacher experiences (Ottenbreit-
Leftwich, Glazewski, & Newby, 2010) informed educational technology design in a course intended
to prepare future teacher students to use technology.In the chapter, the importance of the instructional
design being continuously assessed and evaluated is stressed.

Chapter 24
Priorities in the Classroom: Pedagogies for High Performance Learning Spaces............................... 474
Robert Emery Smith, Stanford University, USA
Helen L. Chen, Stanford University, USA
Menko Johnson, Stanford University, USA
Alyssa J. O’Brien, Stanford University, USA
Cammy Huang-DeVoss, Stanford University, USA

In this chapter the authors argue that it is of great importance that classroom priorities should be kept
on pedagogy, not on the latest educational technologies. Using a collection of course case studies it is
argued that the most innovative and informed design happens by keeping well-supported pedagogy at
the forefront of higher education. Innovative and informed design for higher education must begin with
attention to teaching, not with shopping lists for digital media tools or blueprints for high performance
spaces. Informed by the Technology, Pedagogy and Content Knowledge (TPACK) model for course
design, a three level categorization of teaching innovation is demonstrated and discussed.

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 496

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 510
xvi

Foreword

HOW DO WAVES SHAPE THE LITTORAL?

Every few years, a technology wave reaches the beaches of higher education. Mobile technologies,
social software, Web 2.0, and e-portfolios are recent waves addressed in this book. Every wave brings
novelty: it affords new learning activities and hence generates expectations, often over-expectations.
When the wave returns to the ocean, it leaves behind it some tears of disappointment. If one considers
a single wave, the educational landscape remains somehow similar to what it was before it. There has
been (fortunately) no educational tsunami. Nonetheless, over a longer term, waves do somehow shape
the littoral. Higher education is not the same as 30 years ago, partly due to technologies, partly to other
factors. This book contributes to our understanding of our technologies have influenced the complex
ecosystems of higher education institutions.
The contributions reflect the emergent maturity in the field of technology-enhanced learning. The
book escapes from a discourse that would consider learning technologies as intrinsically innovative
and adopts a more rigorous approach that editors labeled “informed design.” The word “design” partly
refers to the old tradition of instructional design: some contributions stress the importance of analyzing
learning goals when preparing an educational intervention. However, the word “design” has evolved.
Since some chapters address informal learning, the word “design” cannot refer to the sequencing of
interventions (questions, exercises, feedback, …), but to more subtle ways of shaping social interac-
tions through technology. Most of Web 2.0 technologies addressed in this book are not suitable tools
to implement lessons plans, but introduce changes in the institutional ecosystems that might indirectly
change instruction. The status of university lectures illustrates this point. Lecturing is not a sandy beach
that waves easily reshaped; it is much closer to rather rocky cliffs that learning technologies have never
destabilized. Recording lectures does not intrinsically change the pedagogy – a recorded lecture is a lec-
ture – but simply provides a few extra features (navigation, search, subtitles, …) that may have indirect
effects. It is per not a pedagogical innovation but yet, some features many change the processes. The term
“informed design” hence takes two meanings. Not only must design be enriched by the understanding
of the cognitive outcomes of learning activities, but it must also be influenced by the understanding of
how a technology answers to the needs of the teachers, the students, and the institutions. Technologies
are more innovative when they address real problems than when they simply aim to be innovative. The
maturity of our field requires understanding the constraints that shape teachers’ daily work: the cur-
riculum constraints, the time segmentation, the workload for students, et cetera...
 xvii

Actually, other waves reach university beaches every year: new students enter the system, as well as
new teachers. While many teachers pessimistically argue that students are “less” than before (lower in
maths, working less, …), many technologists expect that the last generation – the digital natives – have
a new relationship to learning, to knowledge, to social interaction. Myth or reality? This book includes
different voices, some supporting, some questioning the existence of generational effects. What is im-
portant is that one cannot anymore claim that the situation will simply change the day all teachers will be
familiar with technologies (new teachers are digital natives), or the day when Internet will be accessible
anytime, anywhere, or the day when students will be able to access knowledge across the world, or the
day where teachers will have access to on-line repositories of educational resources. These days are
today, at least in the industrial countries. If, on the one hand, these days have come while, on the other
hand, technologies are still under-exploited in higher education, our mature community has to learn from
this disappointment. The lessons learned, collected in this book, will inform the design of technologies
that penetrate educational ecosystems.

Pierre Dillenbourg
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
xviii

Preface

INTRODUCTION

Higher education is surrounded by expectations and demands from various stakeholders. When it
comes to higher education and information and communication technologies (ICT), at least two types
of formulation and realization arenas can be identified. A first arena, in a nonacademic context, mirrors
the development of a tremendous growth in the belief in the power of ICT demonstrating itself through
e-learning. This is present in relation to the so-called market as well as in the context of governmental
instances such as the European Union (EU). They seem to share an idea of ICT in higher education,
embodied in the concept of e-learning as the savior that will pave the way for a more democratic and
tolerant world inhabited by humans with high digital competence ready to lead the world into the fu-
ture. Within such a development, a possible scenario could be that ethical issues of e-learning become
a question of instrumentalism and design in the sense that several general principles are constructed
with the aim of directing how students should act and learn together in, for example, Virtual Learning
Environments (VLE) in normative and unreflected ways.
A second arena, not necessarily opposite to the first, is placed in an academic context and holds the
practices of both education and research. These practices can be located inside the walls of the universities
as well as on the Internet. It will likely be increasingly important to include ethical aspects when educat-
ing students in technology-rich environments, in online environments, and, not the least, in the research
of such environments and related educational activities. The case will most likely be the same regardless
of whether the research carried out is conducted in terms of, for example, developmental, design-based,
or interpretational research. To point to precisely what this will mean seems difficult, but nonetheless it
seems crucial that both practices consider that being a human is always also a being-for-the-other (Lévi-
nas, 1969, 1981, 1986; Olofsson & Lindberg, 2008). Education as well as research can never be reduced
to merely providing the “right” teaching methods; depicting the “right” guidelines; or suggesting the
“right” technologies. Rather it is a question of identifying and being aware of different, inherently ethical
needs in democracy and the privilege to participate in higher educational activities on equal terms for
all included. In relation to designing educational technology, Mor and Winters (2007) state that “Every
piece of technology designed for education assumes, and therefore supports, a particular organizational
structure and a specific prioritization of knowledge. Yet these assumptions are often left unmentioned”
(p. 67). It is for reasons such as the one mentioned by Mor and Winters that we will argue that issues of
informed and reflected design focusing on the use of educational technology in higher education needs
to be constantly addressed. Researchers, teachers, and other stakeholders in higher education must be
prepared to meet institutional changes and demands from present and future students. Teachers need to
 xix

be able to make informed choices among the variety of educational technologies available. Choices need
to be explained, and not only in relation to curricula and instruction. To provide programs and courses in
higher education in the most developed, productive, and at the same time ethical way possible, teachers
have to make informed choices scaffolding the possibilities for students to attain both formal learning
outcomes as well as students’ own informal, or personalized, goals. Learning and teaching in higher
education must continuously be enhanced in a sound and sustainable way (Looi, Toh, & Milrad, 2010).
Teachers’ theoretical and practical skills when it comes to the design of educational technologies are
therefore always in constant need of rethinking and improvement, and research needs to embrace such
a perspective. This book shall be read as a contribution to such activities and processes.

Informed Design and Learning: A Question of Moving From

Technology Toward Educational Technology?

Thus far, the question of design in relation to learning and teaching within higher education seems to
not be thoroughly addressed, especially in relation to educational technologies (Der-Thanq, Hung, &
Wang, 2007). In trying to find a possible answer regarding why this seems to be the case, one can start
by considering design as a science and why design issues seem to have become increasingly attractive
in relation to higher education and educational technologies during the last 10 years. According to Mor
and Winters (2007), design approaches in learning and teaching with technology are under the strong
influence of Professor Herbert A. Simon (1916–2001). Simon differentiated between natural sciences, or
the behavioral science paradigm, and the sciences of the artificial, whereas the former is about the ques-
tion of what is, and the latter deals with the question of what ought to be. The same underlying rhetoric
of the possibilities to create, develop, and change through design can be found in Walls, Widmeyer, and
El Sawy (1992) arguing that design is both a noun and a verb, both a product and a process. That is, it
embodies a set of both activities and artifacts (compare Hevner, March, Park, & Ram, 2004; March &
Smith, 1995) that could be implemented and used in educational activities. Most likely, this ambiguity
makes it rather attractive for higher education institutions and teachers wanting to develop and facilitate
the learning and teaching practices. Hokanson, Miller, and Hooper (2008) points at an important factor,
that is—design activities in relation to education should “focus on creating rich and innovative learning
experiences, as opposed to simply developing instructional products through staid processes. Advancing
design innovation through use of a new set of design lenses and perspectives” (p.37). In other words, to
create innovative and enhanced learning experiences for the students, the design process must involve
informed choices. Der-Thanq, Hung, and Wang (2007) uses a similar argumentation saying that often
when it comes to educational design, the theoretical foundation for the design process and its imple-
mentation is not congruent; there is a lack in the epistemological logos between the learning theories
behind a certain educational design. Mor and Winters (2007) follow this line of thought in addressing
the fact that design studies should yield theoretical contributions when bringing up the gap between
theory and practice. Theory is also said to be crucial when providing new constructs for describing and
thinking about the consistently value-driven educational practices and related questions. In their words,
it all seems to be a question of “to what extent are we driven by a pure quest for knowledge and to what
extent are we committed to influencing educational practice?” (p. 64).
In the previous paragraph, we tried to sketch a possible relation between design and education.
Next, we will attempt to connect technology to design and education. Mitcham (1994) claims that one
of the most significant aspects of being human is the use of technology. Technology can be understood
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