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Aysel Yıldız (PhD Sabancı University, 2008) is a specialist in late
Ottoman history with a focus on social and political movements. Her first
book was Asiler ve Gaziler: Kabakc
ı Mustafa Risalesi (2007). She is co-editor
of A Military History of the Mediterranean Sea: Aspects of War, Diplomacy and
Military Elites, with Georgios Theotokis (2017), and War and Conflict in the
Mediterranean: A Collection of Papers, with Raffaele D’Amato, Abdülmennan
Altıntaş and Georgios Theotokis (2017). She has also contributed
numerous articles to various books and journals.
“Terrific . . . This book will become required reading on the deposition of
Selim III. Yıldız has done a fantastic job of considering the event in all of
its possible dimensions and has researched them all meticulously. I was
aware of her previous work which was focused on historiography, but
here she delves deep into archival history and does not leave any leaf
unturned: socio-economic history, political history, diplomatic history,
prosopography and cultural history. I loved this book.”
Baki Tezcan, Associate Professor of History at UC Davis
and author of The Second Ottoman Empire (2012)
 CRISIS AND
REBELLION IN
THE OTTOMAN
EMPIRE
The Downfall of a Sultan in the
Age of Revolution

AYSEL YILDIZ
Published in 2017 by
I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd
London • New York
www.ibtauris.com

Copyright q 2017 Aysel Yıldız

The right of Aysel Yıldız to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted
by the author in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or any part
thereof, may not be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Every attempt has been made to gain permission for the use of the images in this book.
Any omissions will be rectified in future editions.

References to websites were correct at the time of writing.

Library of Ottoman Studies 58

ISBN: 978 1 78453 510 0

eISBN: 978 1 78672 147 1
ePDF: 978 1 78673 147 0

A full CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
A full CIP record is available from the Library of Congress

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: available

Typeset in Garamond Three by OKS Prepress Services, Chennai, India

Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
To my dear professor, Halil Berktay, to whom I kept my promise
 CONTENTS

List of Map and Tables ix

List of Abbreviations xi
Acknowledgements xiii

Introduction The Ottoman Empire in the Age of Revolutions 1

1. Rebellious Routines 17
2. The Breeding Ground 44
3. Does Modernization Breed Revolution? 73
4. Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire 102
5. Elite Rivalry 130
6. When the Feet Become the Head: The Limits of Obedience 162
Conclusion 193
Glossary 201
Appendix 203

Notes 210
Select Bibliography 275
Index 290
 LIST OF MAP AND TABLES

Map
Map 1 A Map of Istanbul xv

Tables
Table I.1 Uprisings in Istanbul 2
Table A.1 The New Elite: Career and Connections 204
Table A.2 Coalition of Outs: Career and Connections 208
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

A. AMD Bab-ı Asafi Amedi Kalemi (dos.)

A. DVN Divan (Beylikc
i) Kalemi Defterleri
A. DVN. KLB Bab-ı Asafi Kalebend Defterleri
A. DVN. SMHM.d Bab-ı Asafi Mühimme-i Hümayun Kalemi
Defterleri
A. E. Ali Emiri
BOA Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi
C. AS. Cevdet Askeriye
C. DH Cevdet Dahiliyye
C. S. Cevdet Saray
D. DRB. MH. Darbhane-i Amire Evrakı Muhasebe Kalemi
(dos.)
FO Foreign Office
HAT Hattı Hümayun
İÜEF İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi
L Şevval
M Muharrem
N Ramazan
PRO Public Record Office
R Rebiyülahir
Ra Rebiyülevvel
Ş Şaban
xii CRISIS AND REBELLION IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

S Safer
TOEM Tarih-i Osmani Encümeni Mecmuası
TY Tarih Yazmaları
Z Zilhicce
Za Zilkade
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A lifetime could easily be spent in the study of Ottoman uprisings; to

effect a comparison with the uprisings of other regions and other
times would be the work of many generations. After over a decade of
research on the uprising of May 1807 I remain surrounded by
unsolved puzzles, and to the extent that I have made progress I am
indebted to the intellectual community in which I have been
fortunate enough to participate. From among the many people who
have helped me in the preparation of this study, my thanks must go
first to S. Akşin Somel, who supported me while I was writing my
thesis and developed its themes into this book. My dear professors
Tülay Artan, Kemal Beydilli, Edhem Eldem, Halil Berktay and Metin
Kunt also helped me greatly. Special thanks go also to Mehmet Ipşirli,
Addülmennan Altıntas, and Hamza Fırat, who always encouraged me.
My friends Mehmet Savan, Eyüp Şimşek and Zehra Savan provided
excellent translations of poems and certain quotations. Mehmet Mert
Sunar, Sevgi Adak, Serhan Afacan, Merve Çakır, Brigita Kukjalko
and George Theotokis were always available for consultation. Ben
Young of Babel Editing and York-Proofreaders Team were extremely
helpful in the preparation of the manuscript. My special thanks go
to Y. Hakan Erdem, Baki Tezcan and Kahraman Şakul for their
inspiring criticisms and feedback. Above all, I extend my warmest
gratitude to Hocam Hülya Canbakal and my dear friend and colleague
İrfan Kökdaş for patiently encouraging me, reading drafts and
providing valuable feedback. My final thanks go to my dear family,
xiv CRISIS AND REBELLION IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

my sisters, brothers and nephews, to my partner Yaşar, and to my

sweet daughter Elif Mina and son Kemal Çınar; your support while I
have been writing this book has left me with a deep debt of love which
it will be my joy to repay.
Map 1 A Map of Istanbul: Plan de Constantinople. F. Kauffer and I.B. Lechevalier 1807. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem &
The Jewish National & University Library.
 INTRODUCTION

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE IN THE

AGE OF REVOLUTIONS

The Empire is menaced with total dissolution; the finances are

exhausted; and a rebel already threatens to place a stranger
on the throne.1

From the mid-seventeenth to the mid-nineteenth century there were

approximately 19 uprisings in Istanbul, six of which ended with the
sultan being deposed.2 In the first half of the seventeenth century,
rebellious incidents occurred at short intervals (see Table I.1), and three
times the reigning sultan lost his throne. The eighteenth century began
with an uprising (1703), which also brought about a change in the
throne, but in general the sultans of this period seemed better able to
weather the rebellious storms; out of seven uprisings in this century,
only the uprisings of 1703 and 1730 deposed the ruler. After 67 years of
relative stability, the nineteenth century dawned with three serious
waves of unrest (1807, 1808 and 1826), with two claiming the throne.
The abolition of the janissary army in 1826 put an end to this long
tradition of armed dissent in the Ottoman metropole.
All of the aforementioned rebellions are typical early modern Ottoman
uprisings, in the sense that they were Istanbul-based, palace-centred3 and
marked by the dominance of the traditional military corps (janissaries,
armourers, artillerymen and cavalrymen) among the rebels. Early modern
Ottoman revolts were spontaneous, parochial and unfolded in a rather
standard pattern.4 They often involved open attacks on those in authority,
2 CRISIS AND REBELLION IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Table I.1 Uprisings in Istanbul (seventeenth to mid-nineteenth century)

(* ¼ sultan deposed)
17th c. 1622* 1623 1629 1632 1648* 1651 1655 1656 1687*
18th c. 1703* 1717 1718 1719 1730* 1731 1740
19th c. 1807* 1808 1826

who were perceived as culpable for some public wrong, and took place at
specific sites of administrative power. By contrast, modern social protest
generally avoids direct attacks on the state and instead employs the tactics
of group-level persuasion, such as public meetings, barricades, strikes,
electoral rallies or boycotts, while the sites of mass demonstrations are
generally chosen for their national and symbolic characteristics.5 In the
early modern period, however, convincing decision makers through brutal
force was the most effective strategy. Since the sultan had the immediate
authority to rectify grievances and eliminate those responsible, rebellious
incidents took place in the capital, centred on Topkapı Palace, the
administrative centre of the Ottoman Empire. Although civilians
(artisans, religious groups and ordinary urbanites) were active in some of
these uprisings, it was the military groups who were the overwhelming
majority, whether as core revolutionary cadres or ordinary participants.
The military had the necessary organizational and institutional resources,
as well as the high levels of social solidarity and prestige, to execute
rebellions and facilitate wider public participation in them. The military’s
discipline and codes of behaviour became emblematic of Ottoman
uprisings, and gradually became recognized in Ottoman society as
setting the pattern rebellions would take. Similar repertoires of
contention developed across the world in this period, although inflected
by enduring traditions of collective action, which differed according to
time and locale.6
The May 1807 uprising, the topic of this book, was the last of the
typical Ottoman uprisings in which the rebellious forces were victorious
against the decision makers.7 The story is simple, short and dramatic.
It starts on 25 May 1807, with rebellious stirrings among the auxiliary
troops (yamaks) stationed at the Bosporus fortresses, and ends on
29 May – just four days later – with a change in the throne. The
immediate triggering cause was rumours that the sultan intended to
impose the Nizam-ı Cedid (the New Order) army uniforms upon the
 THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE IN THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS 3

yamaks. Following the murder of a commander at the fortresses, the

rebellion rapidly grew in size as other military groups, as well as
civilians, joined, and the crowd marched from the Bosporus into the city.
As the crisis escalated, the sultan quickly acceded to the rebels’ demands,
declaring the abolition of his new model army and allowing the rebels to
kill eleven statesmen. Unsatisfied with these concessions, the rebels
demanded that Sultan Selim III’s cousin, Mustafa (IV) (r. 1807–8),
replace him upon the throne.
Within a few days, leading ministers had been annihilated, Selim III
dethroned and Mustafa IV crowned. These events were followed by over
a year of chaos during which the rebels blocked the establishment of
effective and stable government in the capital. Succession problems,
intra-elite rivalry, political purges and executions further paralyzed the
Porte, which was already at war with Russia. Selim lived in confinement
while Mustafa IV reigned over an empire wrecked by turmoil and unrest.
Eventually, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha (d. 1808), an ayan of Rusc uk,
marched on the capital to free Selim from the royal cage and re-install
him on the throne. Before he could secure the palace, however, Selim was
killed by confidants of Mustafa IV; consequently, Mahmud II (r. 1808–
39) was enthroned while Mustafa IV replaced the deceased Selim in
confinement.
The May 1807 rebellion thus prepared the ground for the rise of an
ayan, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha the grand vizierate, to the highest
position. On his own initiative, he prepared the 1808 Sened-i İttifak
(Deed of Alliance), a document that put the Ottoman dynasty at the
mercy of regional magnates. This fundamental restructuring of power
relations within the empire is perhaps the most significant consequence
of the May 1807 rebellion, although it is also important for having
prepared the way for the eventual dissolution of the janissary corps by
Mahmud II in 1826. The rebellion of May 1807 and the subsequent
excesses of the rebels and janissaries were used as a pretext by Mahmud II
for the dissolution of the janissary troops. In short, the traditional
military corps, and particularly the janissaries, won a tactical victory in
1807, but were ultimately defeated in 1826.
The importance of the May uprising does not end there: this uprising is
unique in Ottoman history for having occurred during the reign of a
reforming sultan. Selim III’s Nizam-ı Cedid reforms, implemented from
1792 onwards, were designed principally to reinvigorate the Ottoman
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