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CRITICAL APPROACHES TO TV
AND FILM SET DESIGN

The analysis of scenic design in film and television is often neglected, with visual
design elements relegated to part of the mise-en-scène in cinema or simply as
“wallpaper” in television. Critical Approaches to TV and Film Set Design positions
itself from the audience perspective to explore how we watch TV and film, and
how set design enhances and influences the viewing experience.
By using semiotics, history and narratology and adding concepts drawn from
art, architecture and theatre, Geraint D’Arcy reworks the key concepts of set
design. Looking at the impact of production design on how the viewer reads film
and television, these updated theories can be applied more flexibly and extensively
in academic criticism. D’Arcy creates a new theoretical approach, representing a
significant expansion of the field and filling the remaining gaps.
This book is ideal for anyone interested in understanding how we can read
and interpret design in film and television, and should be the primary point of
reference for those studying TV and film set design.

Geraint D’Arcy is a lecturer in Theatre and Drama at the University of South

Wales where he also teaches the theory for TV and Film Set Design BA. He
researches theories of design, technology and scenography in film, television and
theatre and is published in several areas relating to these fields.
CRITICAL APPROACHES
TO TV AND FILM SET
DESIGN

Geraint D’Arcy
First published 2019
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2019 Taylor & Francis
The right of Geraint D’Arcy to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: D’Arcy, Geraint, 1979- author.
Title: Critical approaches to TV and film set design/Geraint D’Arcy.
Description: London ; New York : Routledge, 2019. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018020292| ISBN 9781138636569 (hardback : alk.
paper) | ISBN 9781138636507 (paperback : alk. paper) | ISBN
9781315205939 (e-book : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Television—Stage-setting and scenery. | Motion
pictures—Setting and scenery.
Classification: LCC PN1992.8.S7 D37 2019 | DDC 791.4502/5—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018020292

ISBN: 978-1-138-63656-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-63650-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-20593-9 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
CONTENTS

Acknowledgementsvi

Introduction: Histories and Contexts 1

1 Critical Underpinnings 10

2 Film, Realism and the Nineteenth-Century

Crisis in Representation 31

3 Television, History, Realism 62

4 Architecture and Film 88

5 Narrative and Film Design 116

6 Reading Television Design Through Genre and Narrative 151

7 Dramatic Function in Spatial Design 179

8 Conclusion 207

Index221
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Anna Solic and Jo Durnall, from the University of South
Wales who welcomed me on to the course, maybe a little too eagerly, and seemed
delighted that I wanted to teach their students theory and write this book.Thanks
for their support and their willingness to let me experiment with and bore their
students over the last few years. Thanks to those students, who let me. Thanks as
well to Eleanor Wood who arrived late but whose support has been much appre-
ciated in the final stages and so was actually just in time.
Thanks to Jesse Schwenk for early and continuing encouragement and discus-
sion and some books to borrow, to Brian Fagence for his support and for listen-
ing to me go on, and to Michael Carklin and Ian McNish for cheering from the
side-lines.
Thanks most of all to my family, especially Jeanette, Liet and Alia D’Arcy, for
putting up with me being grumpy and distracted and for humouring me when I
made you watch films you weren’t really interested in.
INTRODUCTION
Histories and Contexts

There is a visual reference to Edward Hopper’s 1942 painting Nighthawks in Dario

Argento’s 1975 movie Profondo Rosso (Deep Red). The film’s protagonist, Marcus
(played by David Hemmings), is wandering home, the worse-for-wear one night,
through the streets of Rome. As he wanders into a plaza he sees his friend drunk-
enly collapsed by a fountain. Occupying one side of the plaza is a single-story,
American-style diner with a curved glass window (Figures 0.1a, 0.1b 0.1c). The
name of the diner is displayed in flashing neon: “Blue Bar”. Not “Phillies”. But
the waiter is serving a man and a woman sat on stools and they are wearing hats.
It is a Nighthawks reference. Isn’t it? If not, then why have this diner displayed so
brazenly in the background of the shot? Marcus does not go in, he is distracted
by the melancholic ramblings of his friend and then by a scream which sees
him drawn into the central mystery of the film. But there is the diner. Perhaps
it is just meant to make us think of late-night 1970s Rome as a chic but lonely
urban city, restless and insomniac. But Hopper did that for New York City in his
painting. Either way, am I reading too much into this and what do I do with this
information if I am? It is possible that the production team had no intention of
making a reference to Hopper, that the scene needed a Roman fountain and this
diner happened to be at the location so they used it to fill in the background?
The intention of the production team does not matter though. The audience saw
it, and the audience reacted to it, and understood that what they were watching
had significance or meaning or, if it did not, it made them feel something about
the characters, about the atmosphere, about the story. They may not be able to
articulate it, nor want to, but it affected them. After all, this is a film about hidden
details (Figure 0.1d).
 Profondo
FIGURE 0.1A  Rosso (1975). Marcus walks home past Edward Hopper’s
Nighthawks.

FIGURE 0.1B Profondo Rosso. Marcus walks home past Edward Hopper’s Nighthawks.

FIGURE 0.1C Profondo Rosso. Marcus walks home past Edward Hopper’s Nighthawks.
 Introduction 3

FIGURE 0.1D Profondo Rosso. A film full of faces, mirrors and missed details.

This book is about identifying and talking about how design affects an audience.
It is addressed to designers and film and television makers, to those just starting
out and those with experience, but it is from the point of view of the audience.
Those whom films are for.
It is important not to read this book in isolation, it is not a text-book or a guide
to better film design but a book which is offering a fresh way of looking at film
design. The aim is to show how the critical academic material that is available can
be used more thoroughly in general film analysis and also how it can be used to
create thoughtful, well-considered designs. This book is not intended to compete
or counter-act any of the work that already exists about television and film set
design, but it will not passively accept it as correct or unflawed. It will criticise
that work and evaluate its usefulness, and it will supplement it and offer new and
different ways of thinking.
There are some scholars who, like Jane Barnwell have excellent access to the
contemporary industry and are doing exciting work bringing insights into working
production designers who have worked on award winning films or long run-
ning TV serials. In Production Design (2004) and Production Design for Screen: Visual
Storytelling in Film and TV (2017), Barnwell takes the processes of film design and
shows how they can be used to understand and deliberately engage with metaphor
and poetic visuals to ‘enhance and heighten aspects of the story’ (Barnwell, 2017.
57). This is useful work to be aware of when reading this book, as it always pulls
the discussion back towards an exploration of the necessities of practice. It looks at
many processes of design which can be informed by theory and research from the
interpretation of scripts and deal with the creative vision of directors. Barnwell
takes theory and applies it to the raw materials of film-making in order to make
interesting designs for an audience to appreciate and leaves the more abstract
analysis and criticism to the film scholars. In this way she extends design from the
4 Introduction

individual designer, through the production process towards the finished film. It
is important because this book is working from the opposite direction: looking
from the armchair or cinema seat at the finished product, and having our own
take on the designs used in television and film. It is a contribution to film and
television criticism, but it is also a contribution to film and television set design
practice, because what it offers a designer is critical and evaluative distance from
their subject.
Often the analysis and criticism that exists in film studies is plentiful and is
sometimes accessible, sometimes too academic but nearly always it is a discus-
sion that sees the design aspects of a film as secondary to the writing directing
and acting. At most there is often mention of the confusingly defined idea of the
mise-en-scène (looked at in Chapter 1) which has conveniently grey, spongey
borders and plenty of definitions and many different examples. Sometimes in
the argument about mise-en-scène, design features as a part, often as a back drop
sometimes as “wall-paper” to the main contenders in that approach – the actor
and the action which occupy the foreground in the majority of films. Barnwell’s
work, however, places emphasis upon the vital role which production design ful-
fils in the film industry and offers insights both personal and collected from other
practicing designers about how to emphasize and explore the production of film
through making designs. Barnwell’s work is striking, because it is not a “how to”
design films, like Georgina Shorter’s Designing for the Screen: Production Design and
Art Direction Explained (2012), or Gerald Millerson’s TV Scenic Design (1997), but
rather a “what to consider” when designing them, and what will produce effective
film designs, using examples from the industry which explore the development
and creation of ideas and designs from the concept to the final execution.

The Book
This book deals with film and television history, and with the criticism of set
design. An awareness of any of these histories or of the approaches detailed in this
book is invaluable to anyone wishing to move into this field of academic study
and is useful to those who only wish to make more informed decisions in their
own film and television designs. It is not hard to be a “completist” in this area, it is
not impossible, for example, to write a history of production design that exhausts
every piece of readily available critical or secondary piece of reading on the sub-
ject. Though the focus of this work begins with the historical it does not remain
there, and the purpose of the history in this book is not to re-tread the same
ground as those who have already written remarkably detailed and interesting his-
tories but to pose a new set of questions and to establish a set of problems which
call for a deeper understanding of how production design can be understood and
what it contributes to the understanding of film texts.
The early chapters of this book are intended for the undergraduate or begin-
ner, to introduce some concepts and ways of thinking about the history of film
 Introduction 5

and television which may not have been clear from other introductions to those
histories, or which deal with similar material to make an argument for the way
we understand the visual elements in those media.The later chapters are intended
for more advanced students of film and television set design, those who are aware
of some aspects of television studies and general film theory. The most important
theories are revised in Chapter 1 and underpin the key arguments of the book,
familiarity with these aspects is needed before investigating some of the more
specialized theories which are used to criticize television and film set design.

Terminologies: Titles and Authorship

There should be a distinction made right from the start of this book about the
difference between art direction and production design, and which one this book
will be referring to.The most straightforward answer is that neither of those terms
is fully suitable for what this book wishes to look at, but of the two, produc-
tion design encompasses the focus of this work. It implies the overall production
rather than suggesting that there is a specific role or industrial management area
responsible for the design of a film. So, set design and production design will be
the catch-all terms used in this book. Art direction and production design are
both industrial terms and as such are as useful here as set decoration or set dressing
especially if attached to these roles are a single person who holds the title of art
director, production designer, set dresser, etc. In practice these roles and distinc-
tions are vital when producing a film, but they also render the teams of people
who often work under those titles invisible in any academic study. It is also very
hard to distinguish where one job begins and another ends, especially when you
are watching a finished product and had no role in the production of the film or
access to a behind-the-scenes document.
This book’s standpoint is from that of an audience member, sitting in the
cinema or in their own home. The industry is something which exists in the
production but which is invisible in the watching. There are industrial and his-
torical distinctions between them but really, they are of little use if what you are
trying to do is understand what contributions a design makes to the sense and
meaning of the film or television drama you are watching. Sometimes during
the course of this book, art directors or production designers may be mentioned
by name, this is usually because the secondary material identifies those people
as the author of a particular design and I have gone along with this to make it
clear which example is being spoken of. It is not meant to reinforce ideas of
authorship over specific elements in a film or television text. In these instances,
they are having the work of a large number of people attributed to them for the
collaborative work of their teams. This will not be the case here, the position
a film and television design critic must assume has to regard the design of the
whole film as the text itself and not as a collection of contributions from the
entire creative team.
6 Introduction

When the films are cited the common academic practice is to only include
the director’s name and not the writer or lead actor, production designer etc.; for
most of the book, films will attribute the director as the creator of the work, sim-
ply to make it clearer that The Thing (John Carpenter. 1985) is different from The
Thing (Matthijs van Heijningen. 2011) or from The Thing (Christian Nyby. 1951).
Television dramas will cite the main production company and a date range for the
same reason. It will avoid listing the many people who worked on the teams to
design those texts. Again, this is not to encourage or persist with ideas of author-
ity or pander to the concept of the auteur as the single author of a collaborative
process, but to make finding the examples cited easier.When directors are specifi-
cally referred to, imagine the person bound in chains of industrial collaborators.
Another distinction is that this book is about film and television design but
frequently and deliberately in some sections it may stray into talking about the
design of props and of costume. This is for the simple reason that when design
is considered as part of a film those elements all work together to make mean-
ing which is understood as one design by the layperson watching the film. For a
greater insight into costume design in film the work of Sarah Street, Costume and
Cinema: Dress Codes in Popular Cinema (2001), is an excellent place to start and
the instances where this book encroaches on that field are few. That is not to say
however, that the critical approaches and histories involved in this book cannot
contribute to studies into costume design or provoke studies into prop design, but
the main focus is upon the design of the sets and eventually how that makes us
consider the other spatial and designed aspects of film and television texts.

Overview of the Book

The early chapters of the book deal with the key concepts in understanding the
shapes of the design histories, some of which are presented in the books already
mentioned. Each movement in film design is provoked by one set of artistic
demands or visions, by competitions and rivalries. Rather than re-tread histories
which have already been written, the idea of the first three chapters of this book
is to try to understand what underlies those pressures which have informed and
continue to inform the shifts and transitions in design trends and styles, and as
part of that show what has shaped the industry practices as well. Fundamentally,
the first three chapters of the book are a history of realism, the dominant mode
in fiction television and film of more than a century, but to understand the his-
tory presented we must first understand what other histories are available and to
understand those histories we need to acknowledge that films can be “studied”.
The purpose of Chapter 1, therefore, is to provide an overview of useful critical
approaches which underpin the arguments running through the entire book: his-
tory, semiotics, mise-en-scène and cinemetrics.
Chapter 2 looks at the early history of film and explores the shifting concept
of realism. This chapter opens the discussion up by looking beyond the historical
 Introduction 7

events of film and considers the artistic challenge it provoked in other art forms.
It provides an understanding of a film text which does not aim to be a complete
history, but as a historical provocation which makes us reconsider the purpose of
design in film. It will use the early innovative film work of the Lumières, Cecil
Hepworth and Georges Méliès to distinguish between the types of realism which
film presents despite always seeming to have photographed the real world accu-
rately. In artistic terms, most film histories begin with the Lumière brothers as an
advent or great event, this chapter begins with them as a serious problem, one that
was deeply involved with a crisis in representation in the nineteenth century and
one which we are still feeling the repercussions of in other art forms today. It con-
siders what happens to representational artistic forms when representation seems
so achievable in one medium and the crises it caused in the nineteenth century.
It will look at the tricky concepts of ideas of realism, naturalism and formalism in
film studies and in theatre studies and literature to expand upon our understand-
ing of realism as a fluid and expressive convention unique to each film text.
Chapter 3 will take a brief look at a transition point in television history, which
tries to respond to the same pressures of representation looked at in Chapter 2. It
will expand upon the difficulties of dealing with representation realistically in a
visual medium begun in the previous chapter and apply it to the unique circum-
stances of television.Televisual realism and cinematic realism have had a profound
effect on how television has been designed and upon how we understand televi-
sion fiction and drama. This chapter focuses on television as the financially-poor
cousin of cinema which has often been assumed to be the artistically poorer too.
As modernity affected cinema in varied ways and left the theatrical behind, tel-
evision did not and in some cases was specifically not allowed to. Its domesticity,
the fact that it was beamed into every home, meant that it was considered the
main competitor to radio so the content and style of dramatic broadcasting was
geared to compete with radio drama and historically this is what has often been
focused upon in television studies. Visually, however, the main competition was
found in the theatre of the mid-twentieth century and for a large part of the his-
tory of television the sets were heavily influenced by the realist theatre of that
period, and in some contemporary programming, this is still the case. But in the
mid-sixties there was a shift in filming technologies and the introduction of more
portable film technologies in the form of 16mm film cameras influenced televi-
sion practices, dramatic content and consequently changed the way that sets could
be designed.
The insights provided by this further exploration of realism in televisual terms
will underpin the differences in the approaches needed to look at television and
film set design in the second half of the book. The chapters in this part of the
book will look at what contributions there have been to understanding set design
and how these contribute to the meaning of film in various ways. It will show
how these approaches can help us to understand the other visual medium of tel-
evision design. Chapter 4 begins by trying to understand what contributions the
8 Introduction

discipline of architecture have made towards understanding and influencing the

design of film. In particular it looks at Christian Norberg-Schulz’s conceptualiza-
tion of architecture as a form which is influenced by our existence in space and by
theorist C.S. Tashiro’s reversal of this idea to articulate how such an approach can
be used to understand (and indeed build) designs in film which help us under-
stand characters in film texts.
Chapter 5 explores how set design can influence, enhance and support our
understanding of film narratives by critically approaching the theories put forward
by Charles and Mirella Affron. The Affrons’ methods have been one of the most
significant theories in set design criticism since publication in 1995. This theory
is also used by Tashiro to flesh out aspects of his approach, but it is an approach
which has its flaws and the arguments put forward by the Affrons become brittle
and limited when used with fiction television examples.
Chapter 6 explores the analysis challenges caused by television more thoroughly
and shows the limitations of both the Affrons’ and Tashiro’s work in the face of the
ever-expanding television text. The Affrons’ theory is based upon understandings
of narrative which long-running television shows make too complicated to use,
whilst Tashiro’s approach focuses on the wide details of the text and the micro
details of a scene. Fiction television with its multiple forms of narrative, generic
complexities, and unique approaches to production make these theories difficult
to use.
The final chapter of this section, Chapter 7, offers a supplement to the theories
presented in this book, one which offers a further approach which can be used
to expand readings of set design in film and in television. The introduction of
this theory which has been argued towards through the course of the book can
be used to select stronger examples from television design or be applied to film
examples. With these identified, the method can be used to construct readings
which stand alone as approaches or be used in conjunction with other film and
television analysis methodologies to construct more complex arguments and fur-
ther the study of set design in television and film analysis.
Running through the entire book is a straightforward argument. It begins by
asking “Why are things the way they are?” and it ends with two questions “How
do I understand a design?” and “How can I use this knowledge?” To understand
this book, you will need an interest in design which extends beyond practice,
towards an interest in understanding the practice of others by looking at their art.
A desire to understand meaning in film and television design is necessary, because
a good deal of this book is dedicated to not underestimating just how much an
audience will get from a design often before the first character has even spoken.
This is not to make a battleground between the actors and the sets, however, the
whole point of this book is to take the dominant theories of television and film
analysis and supplement them by contributing ways of looking more deeply and
more thoroughly at what the designed elements of films contribute to aesthetics
and the theories of television style and film mise-en-scène.
 Introduction 9

References
Affron, Charles and Affron, Mirella Jona (1995) Sets in Motion: Art Direction and Film Narra-
tive. New York: Rutgers University Press.
Barnwell, Jane (2004) Production Design: Architects of the Screen. London: Wallflower.
Barnwell, Jane (2017) Production Design for Screen:Visual Storytelling in Film and TV. London:
Bloomsbury.
Millerson, Gerald (1997) TV Scenic Design. 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Shorter, Georgina (2012) Designing for the Screen: Production Design and Art Direction
Explained. Marlborough: The Crowood Press.
Street, Sarah (2001) Costume and Cinema: Dress Codes in Popular Cinema. London: Wall-
flower Press.
Tashiro, C.S. (1998) Pretty Pictures: Production Design and the History Film. Austin, TX: Uni-
versity of Texas Press.

Film
Profondo Rosso 1975. Directed by Dario Argento. Italy: Rizzoli Film.
The Thing 1985. Directed by John Carpenter. USA: Universal Pictures.
The Thing 2011. Directed by Matthijs van Heijningen. USA: Morgan Creek Entertainment
Group.
The Thing from Another Planet 1951. Directed by Christian Nyby. USA: RKO Pictures.
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