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 Race Lessons
Using Inquiry to Teach
About Race in Social Studies

A volume in
Teaching and Learning Social Studies
William Russell, Series Editor
 Race Lessons
Using Inquiry to Teach
About Race in Social Studies

edited by

Prentice T. Chandler
Austin Peay State University

Todd S. Hawley
Kent State University

INFORMATION AGE PUBLISHING, INC.

Charlotte, NC • www.infoagepub.com
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
  http://www.loc.gov

ISBN: 978-1-68123-890-6 (Paperback)

978-1-68123-891-3 (Hardcover)
978-1-68123-892-0 (ebook)

Copyright © 2017 Information Age Publishing Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission
from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

 CONTENTS

Foreword................................................................................................ ix

1 Using Racial Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Inquiry

Pedagogy to Re-imagine Social Studies Teaching and Learning....... 1
Prentice T. Chandler and Todd S. Hawley

SECT I O N I
FOUNDATIONS OF RACIAL PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE

2 Race and Racism in the Social Studies: Foundations of Critical

Race Theory.......................................................................................... 19
Andrea M. Hawkman

3 The Inquiry Design Model.................................................................. 33

Kathy Swan, S.G. Grant, and John Lee

4 “Do You Feel Me?”: Affectively and Effectively Engaging Racial

Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Social Studies Classrooms....... 45
Christina Shiao-Mei Villarreal

 v
vi  Contents

SECT I O N I I
INQUIRY-BASED RACE LESSONS IN SOCIAL STUDIES

5 Teaching Racial Inequity Through the California Gold Rush......... 61

Christopher C. Martell, Jennifer R. Bryson, and William C. Chapman-Hale

6 Africans in New Amsterdam................................................................ 75

Jane Bolgatz, Tamar Brown. and Emily Zweibel

7 Settler Schooling: A TribalCrit Approach to Teaching

Boarding School Histories in Elementary Social Studies............... 113
Sarah B. Shear

8 But “Ain’t I a Woman?”: An Inquiry on the Intersectionality

of Race and Gender During the 19th Century Abolitionist
Movement............................................................................................ 133
Lauren Colley

9 Teaching the Montgomery Bus Boycott as Citizen Action

for Racial and Economic Justice........................................................ 155
Todd S. Hawley, Andrew L. Hostetler, and Prentice T. Chandler

10 Does Geography Have a Violence?.................................................... 171

Kenneth T. Carano

11 Do People Get to Choose Where They Live?: A Case Study

of Racial Segregation in Austin, Texas............................................. 193
Victoria Davis and Ryan Crowley

12 Stories, Counterstories, and Tales of Resistance: Family History

Projects in World History Classrooms.............................................. 213
Juan Gabriel Sánchez and Raquel Y. Sáenz

13 Toward a Latin@ Critical Race Theory: Examining Race, Racism,

and Afro-Latinidad in World History and Human Geography........... 231
Christopher L. Busey

14 Are U.S. Citizenship Tests Racially Motivated?: Analyzing the

Racial Implications of Citizenship “Tests,” Historically and Today....... 251
William L. Smith

15 Countering Single Stories: Inquiring Into the Confederate

Battle Flag With Students.................................................................. 269
Jessica F. Kobe and Ashley Ann Goodrich
 Contents  vii

16 What is Race?: A Compelling Question With a

Complex Response............................................................................. 297
Samina Hadi-Tabassum

17 On the Matter of Black Lives: Using CRT and C3 Inquiry

to Examine Current Events............................................................... 319
John P. Broome and Jason Endacott

18 Has Social Media Provided Communities of Color a Platform

for Sharing Counternarratives?......................................................... 341
Jennifer E. Killham

19 Examining the Power Structures That Impact Friendships............ 361

Jennifer Burke

SECT I O N I I I
VOICES FROM THE FIELD

20 Notes on Understanding and Valuing the Anger of Students

Marginalized by the Social Studies Curriculum.............................. 379
Lisa Gilbert

21 CounterNarratives in U.S. History: Race Lessons in a

Social Studies Methods Course......................................................... 397
Emilie M. Camp

22 Teaching the Civil Rights Movement in Mississippi: Using Teacher

Professional Learning Communities to Promote CRT/RPCK............409
Jenice L. View

23 Race Autobiographies in the Social Studies Classroom:

Possibilities and Potential.................................................................. 439
Adam W. Jordan and Dacario Poole

About the Editors............................................................................... 453

About the Contributors...................................................................... 455

 FOREWORD

Year after year we, teachers, teacher educators, and social studies scholars,
chronicle the myriad ways curriculum and practice reinforce systemic and
systematic oppression in the United States. We document how social studies
textbooks and state standards carefully script the American story—a story
that largely erases the histories and experiences of our families, friends,
teachers, and students who identify as women, non-Christian, Arab, Black,
Indigenous, Latinx, Asian, and/or LBGTQ+. We further document how
curricula celebrate a United States defined within whiteness, heteronor-
mativity, and the settler colonial narrative of progress (see examples: Chan-
dler, 2015; Ladson-Billings, 2003; Mayo, 2017; Yoder, Johnson, & Karam,
2017). In light of these acts of curricular violence, we put forth arguments
for tearing down these legal and cultural strangleholds, but to what ends?
The 2016 election of Donald J. Trump as the 45th president of the United
States put into sharp focus just how deep and strong the roots of race, gen-
der, sexual, and religious-based hatred truly go in this country. In The New
Yorker, Toni Morrison (2016) wrote,

So scary are the consequences of a collapse of White privilege that many vio-
lence against the defenseless as strength. These people are not so much angry
as terrified, with the kind of terror that makes knees tremble. (n.p.)

Hatred and the fear of an ever-changing, ever-diversifying “America” un-

leashed a deafening roar in 2016 and reminded those of us who center our
teaching toward justice that the road ahead is fraught with danger.

Race Lessons, pages ix–xii

Copyright © 2017 by Information Age Publishing
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. ix
x  Foreword

In the Foreword to Doing Race, King (2015) noted, “Teaching and learn-
ing about race and racism cannot be a safe endeavor” (p. x). King (2015)
posited, “safe racial space” remain “an oxymoron and serves as another
function of power” in social studies classrooms and curricula because most
still center White supremacy (p. x). I have heard teachers and teacher edu-
cators proclaim their classrooms as “safe spaces” for students, but these
proclamations, I maintain, rarely explicitly name what already exists in
classrooms—White supremacy, heteronormativity, misogyny, and settler co-
lonialism (to name a few). I question how a space can be “safe” when the
many isms that plague our society are always already present when teach-
ers and students enter the physical classroom space. In attempts to offer
an inclusive classroom, many teachers utilize a non-racist curriculum and
pedagogy. King and Chandler (2016) discussed this type of teaching as “a
racially liberal approach to race that favors passive behaviors, discourses,
and ideologies that rejects extreme forms of racism” (p. 4). Non-racist cur-
riculum and pedagogy, while analyzing racism as prejudice, fails to tackle
the structure that legitimizes such actions. An anti-racist curriculum and
pedagogy, on the other hand, “is an active rejection of the institutional and
structural aspects of race and racism and explains how racism is manifested
in various spaces, making the social construct of race visible” (King & Chan-
dler, 2016, p. 4, emphasis in original). Anti-racist social studies names the
interlocking layers of a system that works to remain nameless and invisible
and in that naming challenges students and teachers to begin the arduous
process of dismantling it.
The 2016 U.S. presidential election only amplified, in my view, the need
for anti-racist social studies curriculum and pedagogy. Many of my elemen-
tary education majors regularly express fear—of parents, other teachers,
and administrators—in enacting lessons that challenge the status quo nar-
rative. Many also have expressed sadness and an anxiety of uncertainty in
what Trump and his administration will reap on the United States. It would
be easy, perhaps, to retreat, to remain silent in the face of such a future,
but this, too, is an act of violence towards those most vulnerable in these
uncertain times. Junot Díaz (2016), also writing in The New Yorker, reflected,
“Colonial power, patriarchal power, capitalist power must always and every-
where be battled, because they never, ever quit. We have to keep fighting,
because otherwise there will be no future—all will be consumed” (n.p.).
The challenge presented to social studies scholars is to translate our years
of research and teaching experience into lessons for preservice and in-ser-
vice teachers that inspire hope and civic action.
Hope, however, wears many faces. In his recent essay, Jeffrey M. R. Dun-
can-Andrade revealed these faces and the challenges and possibilities they
provide. Identified as an enemy of hope, hokey hope, according to Dun-
can-Andrade (2009), “projects some kind of multicultural, middle-class
 Foreword   xi

opportunity structure that is inaccessible to the overwhelming majority of

working-class, urban youth” (p. 3). Ultimately this type of hope is false be-
cause it focuses on a bootstrap mentality that fails to acknowledge systemic
suffering. Similarly, mythical hope gazes upon the falsity of equal opportu-
nity and an end to racism in the United States as ordained in the election
of Barak Obama. As Duncan-Andrade (2009) noted, “Mythical hope is a
profoundly ahistorical and depoliticized denial of suffering that is rooted
in celebrating individual exceptions” (p. 4). Critical hopes, however, con-
tain three connected elements: material, Socratic, and audacious. Material
hope manifests itself when teachers provide students the resources they
need to name and deal with the myriad issues that impact their lives. “To ac-
complish this, we have to bust the false binary that suggests we must choose
between an academically rigorous pedagogy and one geared toward social
justice” (Duncan-Andrade, 2009, p. 6). In this vision, Socratic hope requires
both teachers and students to share in the painful unpacking of an oppres-
sive society. Solidarity is at the heart of Socratic hope. The third element,
audacious hope, takes on the “collective capacity for healing” (Duncan-
Andrade, 2009, p. 9). Taking the audacious steps to seek to understand and
feel students’ pains and dreams as their own, teachers have the potential
to model acceptance and care. We must strive for critical hope. Duncan-
Andrade concluded, “For those of us who will be working alongside this
next generation of teachers, we must purposefully nurture our students,
colleagues, and ourselves through the cracks, knowing we will sustain the
trauma of damaged petals along the way” (p. 11).
In Race Lessons: Using Inquiry to Teach About Race in Social Studies, Prentice
Chandler and Todd Hawley bring together a collection of social studies
scholars and educators committed to teaching through these cracks. As a
follow up to Chandler’s (2015) Doing Race in Social Studies: Critical Perspec-
tives, the collection of chapters that follow seeks to provide readers much
needed theoretical discussions and practical lessons for bringing anti-racist
social studies into K–12 classrooms. Chapter authors were challenged to
utilize the National Council for the Social Studies’ (NCSS) inquiry-based
College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards
(2013). While the C3 Framework does not explicitly promote the inclusion of
race lessons (King & Chandler, 2016), authors in this volume demonstrate
how race lessons are possible and could be taught. Race Lessons propels
us into uncomfortable spaces with each other (as social studies educators)
and with our students, which I believe is long overdue. I hope this book
encourages greater audacity in our K–12 and teacher education classrooms
to tackle the ideologies and actions that continue to threaten each of our
lives. In these dangerous times, we must cling to critical hope and foster the
needed solidarity to bring justice to our world.
—Sarah B. Shear
xii  Foreword

REFERENCES

Chandler, P. (Ed.). (2015). Doing race in social studies: Critical perspectives. Charlotte,
NC: Information Age.
Díaz, J. (2016, November 21). Radical hope. The New Yorker. Retrived from http://
www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/11/21/aftermath-sixteen-writers-on
-trumps-america#diaz
Duncan-Andrade, J. M. R. (2009). Note to educators: Hope required when growing
roses in concrete. Harvard Educational Review, 79(2), 1–13.
King, L. (2015). Forward. In P. Chandler (Ed.), Doing race in social studies: Critical
perspectives (pp. ix–xx). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
King, L., & Chandler, P. (2016). From non-racism to anti-racism in social studies
teacher education: Social studies and racial pedagogical content knowledge.
In A. R. Crowe & A. Cuenca (Eds.), Rethinking social studies teacher education
(pp. 3–21). New York, NY: Springer.
Ladson-Billings, G. (Ed.). (2003). Critical race theory: Perspectives on social studies.
Greenwich, CT: Information Age.
Mayo, J. B. (2017). The imperative to teach marriage equality in the social studies
classroom: A history, rationale, and classroom practice for a more inclusive
democracy. In W. Journell (Ed.), Teaching social studies in an era of divisiveness:
The challenges of discussing social issues in a non-partisan way (pp. 79–92). Lan-
ham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Morrison, T. (2016, November 21). Mourning for Whiteness. The New Yorker. Ac-
cessed online http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/11/21/aftermath
-sixteen-writers-on-trumps-america#morrison
National Council for the Social Studies. (2013). College, career, and civic life: C3 frame-
work for social studies state standards (NCSS Bulletin 113). Washington, DC:
Author.
Yoder, P. J., Johnson, A. P., & Karam, F. J. (2017). (Mis)perceptions of Arabs and
Arab Americans: How can social studies teachers disrupt stereotypes? In W.
Journell (Ed.), Teaching social studies in an era of divisiveness: The challenges of
discussing social issues in a non-partisan way (pp. 63–77). Lanham, MD: Row-
man & Littlefield.
 CHAPTER 1

USING RACIAL PEDAGOGICAL

CONTENT KNOWLEDGE
AND INQUIRY PEDAGOGY TO
RE-IMAGINE SOCIAL STUDIES
TEACHING AND LEARNING
Prentice T. Chandler
Austin Peay State University

Todd S. Hawley
Kent State University

If American democracy is to fulfill its high mission, those who train its youth
must be among the wisest, most fearless, and most highly trained men
and women this broad land can furnish.
—Beard, 1929, p. 369

SOCIAL STUDIES, RACE, AND DOUBT

As social studies methods professors (and former teachers), we often are

asked by our students if the things we teach in our education courses “can
be done in the real world.” This question and sentiment forms one of the

Race Lessons, pages 1–16

Copyright © 2017 by Information Age Publishing
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. 1
2  P. T. CHANDLER and T. S. HAWLEY

purposes of this project. In this questioning by our preservice teacher can-

didates, there is a dualism in their thinking: wishing that a sort of pedagogy
is possible while simultaneously doubting if it will work. This reminds us of
the statement made by Kliebard (1987), in which he stated his stance rela-
tive to pedagogical reform: “. . . assume from the outset that statements by
leading proponents of curriculum reform movements were invariably far
more ambitious and grandiose than one could possibly expect in practice”
(p. x). This is similar to the doubts that our students have when we discuss
pedagogical ideas or philosophies that are, in a sense, not mainstream. In a
sense, there is, in pre-service and in-service teachers alike, a moment of apo-
ria, a “serious perplexity . . . raising problems without providing solutions”
(Blackburn, 1994, p. 21), that emerges when we ask teachers to transgress
pedagogical norms. In this way, our students are thinking about our pro-
nouncements on pedagogy and filtering those ideas through what they see
as the “real world”—creating a feeling of inescapable doubt about whether
or not a radical (i.e., “going to the root”) pedagogy is possible. Oftentimes
our pedagogy does seem to be halted by this state of doubt—a contradic-
tion between the stated goal of social studies on the one hand, and the state
of race-based pedagogy on the other—and we face a pedagogical impasse.
When faced with this contradiction, we (i.e., teachers) tend to go to what is
familiar, safe, and recognizable. As Dewey (1902) reminds us, “Familiarity
breeds . . . something like affection. We get used to the chains we wear, and
we miss them when removed” (p. 28). This familiar, safe, and recognizable
social studies pedagogy, we fear, does not begin to prepare students for the
racialized worlds that they currently inhabit. As Wills (2001) reminded us:

. . . school knowledge is a poor resource for enabling students to develop

a discourse of contemporary race and ethnic relations that moves beyond
psychological understandings of racism to structural understandings of rac-
ism. (p. 44)

In what follows, the contributors to this volume demonstrate that an in-

formed, radical, inquiry-based, race pedagogy is possible. This state of
doubt, although grounded in personal experiences and constraints of class-
room life, can be overcome—allowing us to unshackle ourselves from famil-
iar, traditional pedagogical stances. To echo Kliebard (1987), we believe the
following chapters do represent “ambitious and grandiose” pedagogy, but
we take the stand that this sort of teaching is possible and that it can and
should be expected in social studies practice.
 Using Racial Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Inquiry Pedagogy  3

RACE AND SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION:

A CASE STUDY IN NEGLECT

The theory, research, and practice related to social studies education and
race can only be characterized by a lack of attention and willful neglect
(Chandler, & McKnight, 2011; Ladson-Billings, 2003). Over the last two de-
cades, this curricular criticism has sharpened, but the problem remains the
same. When it comes to social studies in the formalized, enacted curricu-
lum, race and racism, as formal topics/subjects of instruction are ignored
or marginalized. The educators whose work is included in this volume are
looking to change this trajectory. In developing our ideas on race pedago-
gy, we take as our starting point the stated goal of social studies as a school
subject. The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) states: “The
primary purpose of social studies is to help young people make informed
and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally di-
verse, democratic society in an interdependent world” (NCSS, 1994, p. 3).
We hold that the mission of social studies is not attainable, in any meaning-
ful sense, without attention to the ways in which race and racism play out
in the lives of all U.S. citizens—past, present, and future (Alexander, 2011).
Social studies that does not pay attention to the role of race is but a par-
tial social studies. As a former middle school student once told one of the
authors, “If you take out race, the story (i.e., “Manifest Destiny”) doesn’t
even make sense.” As such, our social studies curriculum should reflect this
fact of social life. The realization that race plays a pivotal role in social life
and that this should be reflected in the formalized and enacted curriculum
seems to be obvious to many; but, this obvious recognition does not always
translate into classroom practice (Bigler, Shiller, & Wilcox, 2013). Research
suggests that social studies teachers do not teach about race because of
several factors: teacher fear, personal adherence to notions of color blind-
ness, viewing slow incremental change as preferable to radical change, and
privileging of multicultural narratives that stress assimilation and cohesion
(Chandler & McKnight, 2011).
Over the past two decades, researchers have taken up the question of
how race is addressed in social studies curriculum and have found it lack-
ing (Ladson-Billings, 2003; see also Chandler, 2015; Chandler & McKnight,
2011; Nelson & Pang, 2001). Research on the inclusion of race and racism
into national standards tells the same story of de-racialization. The NCSS Cur-
riculum Standards for Social Studies: Expectations of Excellence (1994) as well as A
Framework for Teaching, Learning, and Assessment (2010) lacked any substantial
mention of race (Chandler & McKnight, 2011; Ladson-Billings, 2003).
In the NCSS sponsored document, The College, Career, and Civic Life: C3
Framework for Social Studies State Standards (2013), we see more of the same.
As King and Chandler (2016) noted:
4  P. T. CHANDLER and T. S. HAWLEY

Although the C3 Framework does build upon the improved NCSS Standards
model by including “Dimensions of informed inquiry in social studies,” this
document reflects the same raceless perspective as previous NCSS sanctioned documents
[emphasis in original]. Not counting references, the entire 108-page docu-
ment includes the word “race” a total of five times in appendices that detail
sociological and anthropological knowledge. Four of these 5 uses are found
in the appendix dealing with anthropology, a course offering that receives
little attention in public schools and in social studies research . . . In short, this
formal curricular-organization document contains one full sentence [emphasis
in original] that could be construed as a nod towards the importance of race
within social studies and citizenship education . . . (, p. 9)

In the most recent NCSS sponsored document, Teaching the College, Ca-
reer, and Civic Life (C3) Framework: Exploring Inquiry-Based Instruction in So-
cial Studies (2014), the editors include an inquiry lesson on the civil rights
movement in the United States. Following the C3 Framework, this lesson
does what other NCSS sponsored documents fail to do—it does attempt to
tie the notions of history, structural racism, and civil rights to the present
moment through its “Dimension 4” suggested activities (Newseum Educa-
tion Department, 2014, p. 119). Although the focus of this chapter is not
an analysis of contemporary forms of racial oppression, this document sug-
gests creating news reports, class maps, local history, and service learning as
a part of this inquiry lesson.
Additionally (and not surprisingly), textual analysis studies (Anderson
& Metzger, 2011; Bryant-Pavely & Chandler, 2016; Vasquez-Helig, Brown, &
Brown, 2012) have concluded that state social studies standards do not treat
race in any substantial way. If we are ever to transform social studies from
a partial social studies to a vibrant, meaningful whole, we must design and
enact a curriculum supported by national and state standards that confront
the role race and racism play in the daily life of citizens. As the chapters in
the book illustrate, this type of social studies is not only necessary, but also
attainable in schools and communities.

FOUNDATIONAL IDEAS OF THIS BOOK

. . . students need the intellectual power to recognize societal problems;

ask good questions and develop robust investigations into them;
consider possible solutions and consequences; separate evidence-based claims
from parochial opinions; and communicate and act upon what they have learned . . .
—NCSS, 2013, p. 6
 Using Racial Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Inquiry Pedagogy  5

Racial Pedagogical Content Knowledge

This book is based on three main ideas: (a) racial pedagogical con-
tent knowledge (RPCK; Chandler, 2015), (b) inquiry pedagogy, and (c)
an antiracist teaching stance. In 2015, a dedicated group of social studies
educators published the book Doing Race in Social Studies: Critical Perspec-
tives (Chandler, 2015). As outlined in Doing Race (Chandler, 2015), RPCK
represents a shift in the way we think about social studies and the teach-
ing of race. RPCK is a construct that seeks to meld content knowledge in
the social science disciplines, pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman,
1986), and critical race theory (CRT; for the uninitiated, CRT is discussed
in Chapter 2 of this volume).

Rather than viewing the disciplines that comprise the social studies as objec-
tive, pure disciplines, RPCK recognizes that each of these “knowledges” pos-
sesses its own racialized histories that influence the ways in which we under-
stand them. In addition, this position allows the nature of each of the subject
areas to be understood, not only in the traditional sense, but with a critical-
racial lens as well. Pedagogical and disciplinary thinking would be examined
but so would pedagogical content thinking from a CRT standpoint. In fact,
each of the social science disciplines would be treated in this way to answer
large, essential questions in social studies. (Chandler, 2015, p. 5)

When the idea of RPCK was first introduced, it was put forth as a way to guide
teachers’ thinking about how to enact a social studies pedagogy informed by
critical theories of race (Essed & Goldberg, 2008)—not a fixed blueprint for
teaching. We deploy the terms “stance” and “approach” here to highlight for
teachers that this framework is not intended to be used as a rigid approach to
teaching about race within social studies. We believe that teaching about race
is a complex interplay between a teacher’s identity and knowledge, local con-
text, formal curriculum, and student experience. In short, there is not one
way to teach about race, nor do the authors make that claim. Teaching about
race can sometimes feel like a moving target, and the context of a lesson or
unit matters a great deal when we attempt to teach about race. However, we
do hold that having a framework to organize instruction and to aid in the
selection of content is superior to simply “talking about race” during the
course of a social studies lesson. We would ask that you view RPCK as a fluid
construct that can be used throughout your practice, situating aspects within
the social sciences when necessary. Our vision of race pedagogy within social
studies is not proscriptive; it allows for “complexity and idiosyncrasy of the
everyday classroom” (Kincheloe, 2001, p. 45).
Given this stance on teaching about race that was outlined in Doing Race,
we recognized that concrete examples of what this would look like in a
classroom were needed. When the authors of Doing Race (Chandler, 2015)
6  P. T. CHANDLER and T. S. HAWLEY

presented their work at the NCSS conference in Boston in 2014, the great
turnout for the session gave us hope that social studies teachers are hungry
for more information on how to teach about race in honest, meaningful,
and powerful ways. The attendees’ excitement about our work seemed to
be tempered by their local, contextualized classroom realities. We received
more than one question about how these ideas might be transformed into,
to borrow the words of one attendee, a “usable model.” In a way, his ques-
tion mirrors the question that our students at the university ask us on a
regular basis—How can I do this with real kids, in a real school? This ques-
tion by our methods students and by the teachers who attended our session
at NCSS is the origin of the book you are reading. It’s an attempt by social
studies educators from around the country to help us understand how we
can meet the goals of the social studies when it comes to race, and to de-
velop usable models of RPCK.

Inquiry Pedagogy

Second, our book focuses on inquiry pedagogy, specifically, using the

NCSS (2013) College, Career, and Civic Life: C3 Framework for Social Studies
State Standards (C3) and the Inquiry Design Model (IDM) (Grant, Lee, &
Swan, 2014). Although the C3 and IDM are discussed in Chapter 3, we want
to give the reader a glimpse into the foundational thought of these frame-
works (Grant, Swan, & Lee, 2015) and how they can be used with RPCK.
Inquiry, although not a new pedagogical idea, has garnered more attention
within the field since the publication of the C3 Framework. “Teaching facts
does not produce learners of facts; teaching inquiry does create inquirers”
(Clabough, Turner, Russell, & Waters, 2016, p. 26). Within the context of
our work, inquiry speaks to teachers framing their instruction around real
social studies questions—questions that matter. In part, the C3 Framework
is guided by the following principles:

1. social studies is preparation for college, career, and civic life;

2. inquiry is at the heart of social studies;
3. social studies is interdisciplinary and welcomes integration of the
arts and humanities; and
4. social studies is composed of deep and enduring understandings,
concepts, and skills from the disciplines . . . emphasizes skills and
practices as preparation for democratic decision making (Herczog,
2013, p. viii).

In looking at how ideas of RPCK can be used to inform our teaching,

questions that address social science content oftentimes have a decidedly
 Using Racial Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Inquiry Pedagogy  7

racial component. Too often, the social sciences that comprise social studies
are taught as closed disciplines for which all questions have been answered.
In this way, traditional instruction is antithetical to the ways in which histo-
rians, geographers, economists, and political scientists go about their work.
These disciplines share, as a hallmark of their existence and purpose, a
quest for answers—answers to complex and important questions. The no-
tion that there is one historical narrative that we should teach in our history
classes or that geographers “fill in outline maps,” or that economists simply
draw supply and demand curves, or that self-governance simply involves
voting, betrays the spirit of these disciplines. In short, people who work
within these disciplinary traditions spend their time asking and answering
deep, meaningful questions. We think students in our social studies classes
should do the same.
The idea behind RPCK is that there are aspects of all of the social sci-
ences that are informed by and that inform how race manifests itself within
social studies phenomena. At the heart of the C3 Framework and at the
heart of our work is allowing students to actually explore these issues and to
take informed action. As Selwyn (2014) notes,

. . . inquiry in the “real world” involves asking questions that the researcher
truly wants to or needs to explore . . . Inquiry involves an increasingly valuable
set of skills and strategies to bring to students; if we don’t help them learn how
to question, to research, to evaluate, to communicate, to act, where will they
learn and practice those skills? (p. 268)

With the C3 Framework’s push for disciplinary inquiry within the social
sciences and its focus on “developing questions and planning inquiries,” we
believe that the construct of RPCK can serve as an opening for teachers to
develop meaningful inquiries to drive social studies instruction.

Combining the idea of RPCK and the disciplinary tools of the C3 Framework
would allow for inquiries addressing not only essential questions in social
studies, but it would allow for essential questions that address race and rac-
ism among and between groups in our nation and across the world. (King &
Chandler, 2016, p. 13–14)

The combination of RPCK and NCSS’s C3 Framework also represents

a partnering of established social studies thought (i.e., C3) and margin-
alized race thought (i.e., critical race pedagogy). Given the unwillingness
on the part of NCSS to address race in meaningful ways, we see this as an
opportunity for social studies teachers to maintain their ties to established
pedagogical structures and ideas while learning about ways to infuse the
taboo topic of race into their instruction. The ways in which social studies
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