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© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 DONALD REIMERT

Boca Raton London New York

A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Published in 2006 by
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8247-0700-1 (Hardcover)

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8247-0700-2 (Hardcover)
Library of Congress Card Number 2005052952

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with
permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials
or for the consequences of their use.
No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or
other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Reimert, Donald.
Protective relaying for power generation systems / Donald Reimert.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8247-0700-2 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-8247-0700-1 (alk. paper)
1. Protective relays. 2. Electric power systems--Protection. I. Title.

TK2861.R36 2005
621.31'7--dc22 2005052952

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© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Preface
The importance of a generating unit in terms of economics and system reliability cannot be
overstated. This is true for units connected to the nations power grid or for units operating at
industrial facilities. Although there are many books on protective relaying these tend to focus on
transmission and distribution relaying. Many include generator and motor topics. But the
coverage provided does not promote a thorough understanding of the hazards to the generator or
the limitation of protective elements applied.
Settings applied to any protective device represent a balance between adequate sensitivity to
detect a damaging condition and the security required to prevent false tripping during events
that do not threaten the protected equipment. The importance of this balance at generation facilities
is highlighted by the intense scrutiny given these protection schemes in the wake of large-scale
system outages. This scrutiny is not limited to the generator but extends to the auxiliary system
as well.
The aim of this book is to provide in-depth discussions of the major electrical protection
schemes associated with synchronous generators and induction motors. The principles and criteria
presented are applicable to both large and small machines. The discussions include analysis of the
damage and damaging mechanisms relating to each protective function. An understanding of these
parameters is important not only for the application of protection but also when operability issues
arise during or after abnormal operating events.
This book includes detailed derivations of complex system interaction. An understanding of
such phenomena is generally not required when applying rule-of-thumb setting criteria.
However, such derivations provide insight into the basis for the rule-of-thumb settings and the
framework to recognize situations when such settings are not appropriate. These derivations are
also often useful for post-incident analysis.
Included in the text are constructions for Mathcad and Excel workbooks for the analysis of CT
performance in generator differential applications, generator shaft torque transients following
out-of-phase closing, fault-induced impedance swings for two generator systems, steady-state
and dynamic stability limits, under manual and automatic voltage control. These files are available
for download at taylorandfrancis.com.
In the text analytical techniques are presented to assess motor capability and relay response to
transients such as starting and cyclic loading.
I have attempted to present each subject as a stand alone chapter that allows quick reference on
detailed analysis. Example settings calculations are provided.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Author
Donald Reimert, a registered professional engineer, graduated from Penn State University more
than 35 years ago. His professional career was focused on the design and application of protective
relays and relay systems. This has included distribution, transmission, and generation system facili-
ties. In addition to protective relaying, he has design experience in substation and electrical systems
associated with fossil, nuclear, and hydro-generation facility. As a system planner, he developed
regional projects with financial justifications to meet future load requirements. He has helped to
develop and present a series of protective relay courses for the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
including “Introduction to Protective Relaying,” “Protective Relay Principles and Applications,”
and “Advanced Protective Relaying for Transmission Systems.” He has also developed and
presented “Advanced Protective Relaying for Generator and Generator Auxiliaries.”

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents
Chapter 1
Generator Normal Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 The Sample System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Generator Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Voltage Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Sample System GSU Transformer Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 System Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Generator Capability Variations with Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Excitation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Chapter 2
Generator Short Circuit Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Short-Circuit Current Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Generator Internal Magnetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Generator Magnetic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5 Generator Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Fault Current Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.6.1 Initial Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6.2 Fault Calculation Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6.3 Determination of Xf and Fault Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6.4 Three-Phase Short Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6.5 Phase-to-Phase Short Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6.6 Phase-to-Ground Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6.7 Other Fault Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.8 DC Component of Short-Circuit Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.9 RMS Asymmetrical Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.7 Voltage Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.8 Practical Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.9 Short Circuit Calculation Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.9.1 Establish Prefault Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.9.2 Three-Phase Fault at Generator Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.9.3 Phase-to-Ground Fault on High-Voltage Terminals of GSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.9.4 Effects of the Automatic Voltage Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Chapter 3
Generator Differential Relay: 87G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2 Ideal Differential Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3 Practical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3.1 CT Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3.2 CT Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.3 CTs and Fault Current Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 3.4 Percentage Differential Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.5 Relay Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.5.1 Electromechanical Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.5.2 Solid-State and Microprocessor Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.6 Minimum Operating Current Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.7 Slope Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.7.1 Requirements for Slope Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.7.2 Advantage of Low Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.7.3 Sensitivity and Load Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.7.4 Relay Response to Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.7.5 Methods of Choosing Slope Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.7.5.1 Manufacturer’s Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.7.5.2 Qualitative Determination of Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.7.5.3 Error Current Calculations for Unsaturated CT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.7.5.4 Mason’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.7.5.5 Example of Mason’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.7.5.6 Fundamental Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.8 Sample System Differential Relay Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.8.1 Sample System Differential Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.8.2 Electromechanical Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.8.2.1 Specifications for Relay Chosen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.8.3 Choosing Slope Static and Microprocessor Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.9 Stabilizing Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.10 Balancing Burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.11 Time Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.12 Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Chapter 4
Backup Fault Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1 Purpose and Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1.1 Standard Overcurrent Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1.2 Voltage-Dependent Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.1.3 Electromechanical vs. Electronic Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2 Voltage Supervised Overcurrent Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.1 Voltage-Controlled and Voltage-Restrained Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.2 Application Options and Fault Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2.2.1 Scheme Sensitivity vs. Potential Transformer (PT) and
Current Transformer (CT) Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2.2.2 Sensitivity Related to Relay Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.2.3 Delta Relay Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.3 Settings Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.3.1 Basic Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.3.2 Automatic Voltage Regulator in Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.3.3 51 V Transmission System Backup Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.3.4 Effects of Wye-Delta Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.2.3.5 Self-Excitation Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2.3.6 Relay Response to Transient Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.2.3.7 Equipment Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.2.4 Setting Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 4.2.5
Relay Current and Voltage Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2.5.1 Relay Current and Voltage Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.2.5.2 Sequence Currents and Voltages Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2.6 Sample System 51 V Relay Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2.6.1 Fault Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2.6.2 Choosing the Undervoltage Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.2.6.3 Choosing Overcurrent Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.2.6.4 Choosing Time Delay Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.2.6.5 Auxiliary PTs to Correct for Wye-Delta Phase Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.3 Distance Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.3.1 Distance Relay Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.3.1.1 Z Measured by Phase Distance Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.3.1.2 Mho Distance Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.3.1.3 System Impedance vs. Relay Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.3.2 Setting Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.3.2.1 Load Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.3.2.2 Apparent Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.3.2.3 Influence of an Interposing Wye-Delta Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.3.2.4 Auxiliary PTs to Correct for Wye-Delta Phase Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.3.3 Other Distance Relay Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Chapter 5
Generator Ground Fault Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.2 Generator Grounding Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.2.1 Ground Fault Current Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.2.2 Overvoltage Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.2.3 Core Damage Cause by Ground Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.3 Methods of Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.3.1 Ungrounded System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.3.2 Solidly Grounded/Effectively Grounded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.3.3 High-Impedance Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3.3.1 Distribution Transformer Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3.3.2 High-Resistance Grounding on Sample System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.3.3.3 Ground Fault Neutralizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.3.4 Low-Impedance Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.3.4.1 Low-Resistance Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.3.4.2 Low-Reactance Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.3.4.3 Grounding Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.4 Ground Fault Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.4.1 Alarm vs. Tripping for High-Impedance
Grounded System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.4.2 Electromechanical and Electronic Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.4.3 High-Impedance Ground Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.4.3.1 Neutral Overvoltage Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.4.3.2 Application of 59GN on Sample System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.4.3.3 Broken Delta Overvoltage Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.4.3.4 Overcurrent Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.4.4 Low-Impedance Ground Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.4.4.1 Ground Differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 5.4.5
100% Stator Protection Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.4.5.1 Third-Harmonic Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.4.5.2 Third-Harmonic Undervoltage Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.4.5.3 Settings for Sample System 27H Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.4.5.4 Third-Harmonic Overvoltage Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.4.5.5 Third-Harmonic Voltage Ratio Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.4.6 Neutral Injection Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Chapter 6
Unbalanced Current Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2 What Is Negative-Sequence Current? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.3 Effects of Negative-Sequence Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.3.1 Rotor Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.3.1.1 Cylindrical Rotor Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.3.1.2 Salient Pole Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.3.2 Pulsating Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.4 Generator Negative-Sequence Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.4.1 Continuous Unbalanced Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.4.2 Short Time Unbalanced Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.5 Sources of Negative Sequence Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.5.1 Unbalanced Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.5.2 Open Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.6 In-Service I22t Duty vs. Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.6.1 Calculation of I22t Duty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.6.1.1 Isolated Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.6.1.2 The Interconnected Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.6.1.3 The’venin’s Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.6.2 Unbalanced Duty on Sample System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.7 Unbalanced Current Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.8 Negative-Sequence Relay Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.8.1 Calculation of Open-Circuit Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.8.2 Negative Sequence Relay Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Chapter 7
Motoring Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.2 Effects of Motoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.2.1 Consequences for a Steam Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.2.2 Consequences for Other Prime Movers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.3 Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.3.1 Mechanical Protection: Steam Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.3.2 Electrical Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.4 Sequential Trip Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.5 Backup Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.6 Setting Device 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.7 Applying Reversed Power Relay on the Sample System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Chapter 8
Field Winding Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.1 Field Ground Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.1.1 Field Ground Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.1.2 Field Ground Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.1.3 Field Ground Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.1.3.1 Field Ground Relay Selection and Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.2 Field Overcurrent Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.2.1 Field Overcurrent Transients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.2.2 Overcurrent Protection Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
8.2.3 Application of AC Relays to Protect the Field Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.2.3.1 Basic Rectifier Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
8.2.3.2 Relay Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.3 Settings For Field Overcurrent/Overvoltage Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.3.1 Full Load Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.3.2 Maximum Field Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.3.3 Maximum Field Current from a Bridge Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.4 Applying Field OC Protection on the Sample System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
8.4.1 Rated Field Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
8.4.2 Maximum Available Field Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8.4.3 Pickup Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8.4.4 Time Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Chapter 9
Overexcitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.2 Causes of Overexcitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.3 Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
9.4 V/Hz Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
9.5 Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
9.5.1 Field Monitoring Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
9.5.2 V/Hz Limiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9.5.3 V/Hz Relay Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
9.6 Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.6.1 Generator V/Hz Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.6.2 Transformer Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.6.3 Generator/Transformer Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.6.4 Setting Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.6.5 Time Delay Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.7 Differential Relay Response to Overexcitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
9.8 Application of V/Hz Protection on the Sample System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Chapter 10
Abnormal Frequency Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.2 Effect on Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.3 Steam Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.4 Combustion Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.5 Hydro Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.6 Excitation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10.7 Protection and Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
10.7.1 Primary Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
10.7.2 Backup Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.7.3 Combustion Turbine Generators Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

Chapter 11
Minimum Excitation Limiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
11.1 Overview of the Minimum Excitation Limiter Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
11.1.1 Operation in the Leading Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
11.1.2 Limits on Leading Var Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
11.2 Setting Criteria Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
11.3 Setting Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
11.4 Generator Leading Var Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
11.4.1 Stator End-Core Heating in the Round Rotor Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
11.4.2 Leading Var Capability of a Salient Pole Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
11.5 Coordination with the LOF Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
11.6 System Stability Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
11.6.1 Classical View of Steady-State Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
11.6.2 Manual Regulator Steady-State Stability Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
11.6.3 Automatic Regulator Stability Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
11.7 MEL Protective Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
11.7.1 Straight Line Characteristic: Type UEL2 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
11.7.2 Multisegment Straight Line Model Type UEL3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
11.7.3 Circular Characteristic Type UEL1 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
11.8 MEL Dynamic Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
11.8.1 Problems with MEL Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
11.8.2 Interaction with V/HZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11.8.3 Isolated on Capacitive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11.9 MEL Application on the Sample System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

Chapter 12
Loss of Synchronism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
12.2 Turbine Generator Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
12.3 Transient Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
12.4 Out-of-Step Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
12.5 Classical Swing Impedance Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
12.6 Dynamic Swing Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
12.7 Setting Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
12.7.1 Recoverable Swings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
12.7.2 Current Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
12.7.3 Out-of-Phase Switching Rating for Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
12.7.4 Swing Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
12.8 Out-of-Step Relay: Device 78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
12.8.1 Simple Mho Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
12.8.2 Single Blinder Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
12.8.3 Double Blinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
12.8.4 Double Lens and Concentric Circle Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
12.8.5 Detection Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

12.9 Setting Out-of-Step on Sample System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Chapter 13
Loss of Field Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
13.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
13.1.1 Other Factors Affecting Loss of Field Severity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
13.2 System Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
13.3 Generator Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
13.3.1 Stator Winding Overload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
13.3.2 Rotor Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
13.3.3 Stator End-Core Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
13.3.4 Torque Pulsations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
13.4 Loss of Field Protection: Device 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
13.5 Distance Relay Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
13.5.1 Distance Scheme 1: Unqualified Trip Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
13.5.1.1 Coordination for Stable Swings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
13.5.1.2 Coordination with Minimum Excitation Limiter and
Generator Capability Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
13.5.1.3 Modified Scheme: Two Impedance Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
13.5.2 Distance Scheme 2: Qualified Trip Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
13.5.2.1 Trip Delay Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
13.5.2.2 Criteria for Setting Mho Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
13.5.2.3 Undervoltage Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
13.5.2.4 Modified Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
13.5.2.5 Special Consideration for Bussed Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
13.6 Other Causes for LOF Relay Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
13.6.1 Operator Error on Startup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
13.6.2 Frequency-Sensitive Excitation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
13.7 LOF Relays During System Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
13.8 Special Considerations for Hydro Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
13.9 Application of the LOF on the Sample System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
13.9.1 Application of Scheme 1 on the Sample System Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
13.9.1.1 Setting Review against Dynamic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
13.9.2 Application of Scheme 2 on the Sample System Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
13.9.2.1 Setting Review against Dynamic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Chapter 14
Synchronization Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
14.2 Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
14.2.1 Transformer Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
14.2.1.1 Maximum Withstand Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
14.2.1.2 Maximum Synchronizing Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
14.2.2 Generator Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
14.2.2.1 Shaft Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
14.2.2.2 Fatigue Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
14.2.2.3 Relative Damage Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
14.2.2.4 Considerations for Gas Turbines and
Hydro Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
14.2.3 Breaker Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

14.3 Synchronizing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
14.3.1 Manual Synchronizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
14.3.2 Automatic Synchronizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
14.4 Synchronism Check Relays (Device 25) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
14.4.1 Electromechanical Sync-Check Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
14.4.2 Electronic-Based Sync-Check Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
14.4.2.1 Phase Angle Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
14.4.2.2 Slip Frequency Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
14.4.2.3 Anticipatory Close Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
14.4.2.4 Minimum and Maximum Voltage Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
14.4.2.5 Maximum Voltage Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
14.4.2.6 Generator Voltage Priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
14.4.2.7 PT Phase Angle Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
14.4.2.8 Voltage Magnitude Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
14.4.2.9 Built-In Dead Bus Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
14.5 Automatic Synchronizer (Device 25A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
14.5.1 Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
14.5.2 Frequency Modulation Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
14.5.3 Pulse Width Modulation Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
14.6 Slow Breaker Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
14.7 Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
14.8 Synchronizing Equipment on the Sample System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
14.8.1 Input Circuit Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
14.8.2 Autosynchronizer Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
14.8.3 Sync-Check Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
14.8.4 Slow Close Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

Chapter 15
Accidental Energization Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
15.2 Generator State at Energization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
15.3 Inadvertent Energization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
15.3.1 Initial Current for a Three-Phase Energization
from Standstill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
15.3.2 Single-Phase Energization from Standstill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
15.3.3 Initial Current for a Single-Phase Energization at Standstill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
15.4 Breaker Flashover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
15.4.1 Initial Single-Phase Flashover Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
15.4.2 Initial Current for Two-Phase Flashover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
15.5 Dynamic Analysis of Three-Phase Energization from Standstill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
15.5.1 System Voltage Impressed on d- and q-Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
15.5.2 Axis Voltages Produced by Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
15.5.3 Derivation of Axis Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
15.5.4 Defining Generator Shaft Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
15.5.5 d- and q-Axes Circuit Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
15.5.6 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
15.6 Generator Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
15.6.1 Rotor Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
15.6.2 Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
15.7 Turbine Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

15.8 Energization Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
15.9 Protection Provided by Native Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
15.9.1 Loss-of-Field Relay: Device 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
15.9.1.1 LOF Scheme 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
15.9.1.2 LOF Scheme 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
15.9.2 Backup Distance Protection: Device 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
15.9.3 Voltage Restraint/Voltage Control Relays: Device 51V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
15.9.4 Motoring Protection: Device 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
15.9.5 Negative-Sequence Current Protection: Device 46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
15.9.6 Backup Ground Relay: Device 51N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
15.10 Dedicated Energization Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
15.10.1 Dedicated Inadvertent Energization Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
15.10.2 Dedicated Breaker Flashover Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
15.11 Applying Energization Protection on the Sample System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
15.11.1 Inadvertent Energization Scheme Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
15.11.2 Open Breaker Flashover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
15.11.2.1 Initial Current for Single-Phase Flashover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
15.11.2.2 Initial Current for Two-Phase Flashover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
15.11.2.3 Setting the OBF Fault Detector (50N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

Chapter 16
Motor Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
16.2 Motor Characteristics and Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
16.2.1 Classical Motor Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
16.2.1.1 Motor Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
16.3 Motor Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
16.3.1 Rated Voltage and Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
16.3.2 Service Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
16.4 Motor Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
16.4.1 Motor Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
16.4.2 Speed – Torque Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
16.5 Motor Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
16.5.1 Horsepower Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
16.5.2 Matching Motor and Load Torque Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
16.5.3 Inertial Capability of NEMA Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
16.6 Motor Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
16.6.1 System Voltage Degradation during Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
16.6.2 Starting Time Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
16.6.3 Motor Model for Starting Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
16.6.4 Starting Calculation Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
16.6.5 Effect of Load Torque Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
16.6.5.1 Centrifugal Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
16.6.6 Rotor Heating during Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
16.7 Motor Overload Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
16.7.1 Motor Thermal Limit Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
16.7.2 Overcurrent Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
16.7.3 Thermal vs. Disk Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
16.7.4 Time Overcurrent Trip Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
16.7.5 Duty Cycle Motor Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 16.7.6 Induction Disk Operating Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
16.7.6.1 Dynamic Characteristic of the Disk Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
16.7.6.2 Practical Disk Element Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
16.7.6.3 Disk Element Response to Starting Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
16.7.6.4 Disk Element Response to Cyclic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
16.7.7 Basic Thermal Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
16.7.7.1 Dynamic Characteristic of the Thermal Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
16.7.7.2 Thermal Element Response to Starting Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
16.7.7.3 Thermal Element Response to Cyclic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
16.8 Multifunction Microprocessor Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
16.8.1 Thermal Model Protection Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
16.8.1.1 Derivation of Model Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
16.8.1.2 Scheme Application Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
16.8.2 Thermal Limit Based Protection Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
16.8.2.1 Application of Thermal Limit Based Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
16.8.3 Unbalanced Current Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
16.9 Special Schemes for Difficult Starts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
16.10 Direct Temperature Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
16.11 Phase Fault Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
16.11.1 Cable Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
16.11.2 Upstream Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
16.12 Ground Fault Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
16.13 Phase Unbalanced Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
16.13.1 Current and Voltage Unbalanced Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
16.14 Sample Setting Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
16.14.1 Set Device 51 Operating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
16.14.2 Set Device 50 Operating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
16.14.3 Checking the Maximum Three-Phase Fault Current at the Motor . . . . . . . . 511
16.14.4 Device 51 Time Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
16.14.5 Coordination with Upstream Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

Appendix A
Generator Data Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

Appendix B
CT Performance in Differential Relay Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

Appendix C
Dynamic and Steady State Stability Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

Appendix D
Swing Impedance Locus Calculation Using Excelw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

Appendix E
Generator Shaft Torsional Transients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Generator Normal Operations
1
1.1 THE SAMPLE SYSTEM
Before we begin to analyze the various malfunctions that can befall a generator and the connected
auxiliary system, we must have an understanding of the parameters that define normal operation.
Our review of generator and generator auxiliary protection will be based on the sample system
shown in Figure 1.1. During normal operations, the generator supplies power to the grid through
the Generator Step Up (GSU) transformer and to auxiliary loads at 4.16 kV buses A and B
through auxiliary transformers. When the unit is off line, the auxiliary load is supplied from the
auxiliary transformer at Bus B.
The GSU transformer connects to a moderate strength power system. With all lines in service,
the power system and GSU transformer appear as a 14.8% impedance at the generator terminals.
Line A is the strongest line connected to the 69 kV bus; its outage increases the impedance seen
by the generator to 29%.
The system voltage also varies. During light load periods the voltage drop through system
components such as lines and transformers is minimal. As load increases, the increased voltage
drop caused by the flow of Watts and Vars through these components causes system voltage to
fall. Because these power system components are highly inductive, the voltage drop caused by an
amp of reactive current is greater than that caused by an amp of real current.
The system voltage regulation between light and peak load is amplified by the reactive
characteristic of the long high-voltage (HV) transmission lines. These lines behave as capacitors
when lightly loaded. The Vars they produce flow into the system, boosting voltage just as
distribution capacitors do. As the HV line loading increases, the line characteristic changes from
capacitive to inductive. At peak system load, the Vars consumed by HV lines significantly increases
system voltage drop.
During light load periods, generators may be required to operate with reduced field current,
consuming excess Vars from the system, to reduce system voltage. At peak system load, generators
operate near full field current, supplying Vars to support system voltage.
It is not desirable to operate generators at rated Var output in peak load situations if the system
is in a normal configuration. A portion of the generators’ reactive capability should be held in
reserve to boost voltage in the event of a forced outage of a major tie line or generator.
Maximum system voltages would be anticipated at night in the spring and fall. Minimum
system voltages typically occur during the day in the summer and winter when the system
load is at peak. These variations in system configuration and voltage have a significant effect on
the operation of the generator and associated auxiliary equipment, as will be seen later in this
chapter.

1.2 GENERATOR CAPABILITY

The proper application of protective relaying requires knowledge of the operating range of each
component and an understanding of the interactions of the generating unit and the power
system. First we will look at component ratings.
The nameplate rating of our sample system generator is 104.4 MVA at 0.85 power factor,
13.8 kV. This defines only one limiting point of operation for the machine. It is logical to
assume that a reduction in MVAR output would allow some increase in MW output and that a
reduction in MW would allow higher MVAR output.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2 Protective Relaying for Power Generation Systems

Line A Z1bu = 2%
97 MVA
67/13.8 kV X = 10%
104 MVA Z = 6.5%
0.85 PF Line B
68.7 kV Tap
13.8 kV X = 35% Z1bu = 5%

∆ Y Line C
X = 35%
2–15 MVA
13.8/4.16 kV
13.8 kV Tap
∆ Z = 9.0% ∆ Z1bu= 10%

Y Y System Equivalent = Transformer + Grid

N
A B Zsys (normal) = 14.8%
Zsys (line A) = 29.1%
M M
% on generator base

FIGURE 1.1 System online.

These allowable variations are defined by the generator capability curve, which is provided by
the manufacturer. Figure 1.2 is such a curve plotted for a hydrogen-cooled generator. It defines the
Watt/Var operating limit as a function of coolant pressure. Note that the maximum design coolant
pressure for the generator defines the outermost boundaries, 75# H2. The actual coolant pressure
for an operating unit is often less than the design maximum pressure.
The capability curve shown is for a steam-driven generator with a cylindrical rotor. It is a com-
posite of three distinct limits. The right-hand section, between the B and C, represents the limit

0.8 75 PSIG H
2
A
60 PSIG
Lagging (Overexcited)

0.6 45 PSIG 0.85 PF

30 PSIG B

0.4

0.2
KVAR (PU)

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

KW (PU)
Leading (Underexcited)

0.2

0.4

C
D
0.6 0.85 PF

Terminal Voltage = 1.0 PU

0.8

FIGURE 1.2 Generator capability curve.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Generator Normal Operations 3

imposed by the ampere rating of the stator winding. The ampere rating of the field winding imposes
the limit between A and B, which limits the output of Vars into the power system. These are termed
“lagging Vars.” The bottom limit, C to D, defines the maximum Vars the generator can consume
from the power system. These are termed “leading Vars.” This limit is the result of heating in
the end laminations of the stator core. It is caused by flux that flares from the end of the stator
when the generator is operating at low field current. The capability curve is normally plotted at
the rated terminal voltages for the generator.
The capability curve for a hydro unit will differ from that of a steam unit. Hydro units are of
salient pole construction and do not have end core regions. Thus they will only have two distinct
limits. The field circuit imposed lagging Var limit from A to B and the stator winding current limit
which for a hydro unit extends as a continuous arc from B to D. The leading Var limit is determined
by the current rating of the stator winding.

1.3 VOLTAGE LIMITATIONS

The allowable voltage variations at the generator terminals may be bounded by the operating limits
of the generator or connected transformers. ANSI/IEEE C50.12 and C50.13 define the permissible
operating range of cylindrical rotor or salient pole machines to be +5% rated voltage.
Standards set two voltage requirements for transformers. The primary winding must be capable of
operating continuously at the voltage required to carry rated transformer load at 80% power factor (pf)
with 105% rated voltage at the secondary terminals. The transformer shall also be capable of operat-
ing at 110% rated voltage with no load. These requirements must be met for any primary or secondary
tap position.
To determine the actual voltage limitation at the generator terminals, an evaluation of both
these voltage limits is required. Remember that the secondary winding (output winding) of the
GSU transformer is the high-voltage winding.

1.3.1 SAMPLE SYSTEM GSU TRANSFORMER LIMITS

The GSU transformer is rated 67 kV to 13.8 kV, but it is operating on the 68.7 kV tap. Therefore,
the generator side winding (the primary winding) must be capable of operating at the voltage
necessary to produce 105% of 68.7 kV (72.1 kV) on the high-side winding with rated load at
80% lagging pf.
Calculating the primary voltage for this condition using the transformer impedance of 6.5%:

kVA 1:0
I¼ ¼ ¼ 0:952/
36:98 ¼ 0:76
j0:57
Esec 1:05
EP ¼ 1:05 þ j0:065 (0:76
j0:57) ¼ 1:087 þ j0:050
¼ 1:088/2:68

Standards therefore require this transformer to be capable of operation with a primary voltage of
108.8% or 15.01 kV. This transformer has low impedance; consequently, the primary voltage at
rate load is less than the 110% rating required for no load operation. Therefore, maximum allowable
continuous voltage on the primary (low-voltage) winding is 110% as defined by the no load
requirement. Transformers with higher impedance will have allowable voltage limits greater
than 110%, as determined by the rated load condition.
The above example is academic for the sample system because the generator and transformer
windings are both rated at 13.8 kV. Since the generator is limited to +5% rated voltage, the
operating range for the 13.8 kV system is obviously +5%.
It is common practice to rate the transformer low-voltage winding 95% of the generator rating.
In these systems the transformer may limit the upper end of the operating range.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4 Protective Relaying for Power Generation Systems

1.4 SYSTEM LIMITATIONS

In practice, most units cannot operate at the boundaries of the generator capability curve. The MW
output of the generator is limited by the driving torque available for the turbine, not the ampere
rating of the stator winding. The turbine is normally sized just large enough to produce rated
MW at rated power factor. A vertical line through points B and C of Figure 1.2 would define
the practical MW limit for most generators.
The Var output of the generator is a function of the generator terminal voltage, system impe-
dance and system voltage. It is common to encounter transformer or generator voltage limitations
before a generator Var limit is reached.
The relationship between real and reactive power, system voltage and impedance is often rep-
resented as a circle diagram.1 A generator connected to a system and operating with a fixed term-
inal voltage will have a unique Var output for every value of real power output. The circle diagram
is the locus of these points and will have the following characteristics:

Center ¼ Et2 =Zsys

Radius ¼ Et  Esys=Zsys

where
Et ¼ generator terminal voltage
Esys ¼ system voltage
Zsys ¼ impedance between Et and Esys
If resistance is neglected, the center is located on the overexcited (Var out) axis, as shown in
Figure 1.3.
A circle diagram for the sample system is plotted over the capability curve for the sample
system generator in Figure 1.4. This plot shows the possible operating points at the generator

Zsys
Q Esys

Et

Center = Et 2/Zsys

Radius = Et × Esys/Zsys

(P, Q)

−Q

FIGURE 1.3 Power circle diagram.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Generator Normal Operations 5

0.8
Turbine Limit
Field Limit

Overexcited
0.6

0.4

Et = 1.05

0.2
Reactive (PU)

Stator Limit

−0.2
Et = 0.95

−0.4
Underexcited

−0.6

Esys = 1.0
End Core Limit Zsys = 14.8% (Gen Base)

−0.8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Power (pu)

FIGURE 1.4 Practical operating limits: System normal.

voltage limits of 1.05 and 0.95 per unit (pu). The system impedance is normal (no lines out) and
system voltage is 1.0 pu. Var output with 1.05 pu terminal voltages is about half the overexcited
Var capability of the generator. To utilize the full overexcited Var capability of the generator,
the terminal voltage would have to be increased significantly. Likewise, with the terminal
voltage at 0.95 pu, the generator is only absorbing about half its leading Var capability. To
utilize the full leading Vars capability of the generator, the terminal voltage must be reduced.
Since the terminal voltages plotted, +5% rated, are the maximum and minimum operating
voltages permitted by generator standards, the sample system generator’s Var output will be
limited by terminal voltage, not generator capability curve.
A voltage limitation would be expected on a relatively weak system like the sample system.
The weaker the system, the more severe the limitations. Figure 1.5 shows the effects of switching
out the strongest tie line in the sample system, Line A. The equivalent impedance of the system, as
seen by the generator terminals, increases from 14 to 29%; as a result, the permissible operating
area is sharply reduced.
Variations in system voltage also have a significant effect on the actual operating limits.
Figure 1.4 and Figure 1.5 assumed a constant system voltage, but, as previously stated, system

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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