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(Ebook) Hands-On Concurrency With Rust by Brian L. Troutwine ISBN 9781788399975, 1788399978 Download Full Chapters

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Hands-On Concurrency
with Rust

$PO`EFOUMZCVJMENFNPSZTBGFQBSBMMFMBOEFaDJFOUTPGUXBSF
JO3VTU

Brian L. Troutwine

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Hands-On Concurrency with Rust
Copyright a 2018 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations
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have been caused directly or indirectly by this book.

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Contributors

About the author


Brian L. Troutwine is a software engineer with an interest in low-latency and high-scale
software. He has worked at Rackspace Hosting, AdRoll, and Postmates. As his first book
publishes, he will be starting at Unity Technologies.

He has delivered the following talks:

The Charming Genius of the Apollo Guidance Computer


Getting Uphill on a Candle: Crushed Spines, Detached Retinas, and One Small Step
10 Billion a Day, 100 Milliseconds Per: Monitoring Real-Time Bidding at AdRoll
Fetching Moths from the Works: Correctness Methods in Software
Build Good Software: Of Politics and Method

I'd like to thank Tom Santero for reading early drafts of this book. I'd like also to thank
Miriam Pena, Sonny Scroggin, Irina Guberman, and Brian Mitchell for talking through
what the book was and helping me find, thereby, what it could be. Special thanks to Chris
Markiewicz for being an excellent roommate in high school.
About the reviewer
Daniel Durante is an avid coffee drinker/roaster, motorcyclist, archer, welder, and
carpenter whenever he isn't programming. From the age of 12 years, he has been involved
with web and embedded programming with PHP, Node.js, Golang, Rust, and C.
He has worked on text-based browser games that have reached over million active players,
created bin-packing software for CNC machines, embedded programming with cortex-m
and PIC circuits, high-frequency trading applications, and helped contribute to one of the
oldest ORMs of Node.js (SequelizeJS).

He also has reviewed the following books for Packt:

PostgreSQL Developer's Guide


PostgreSQL 9.0 High
Node Cookbook

I would like to thank my parents, my brother, and friends who've all put up with my
insanity sitting in front of a computer day in and day out. I would not be here today if it
wasn't for their patience, guidance, and love.

Packt is searching for authors like you


If you're interested in becoming an author for Packt, please visit BVUIPSTQBDLUQVCDPN
and apply today. We have worked with thousands of developers and tech professionals,
just like you, to help them share their insight with the global tech community. You can
make a general application, apply for a specific hot topic that we are recruiting an author
for, or submit your own idea.
Table of Contents
Preface 1
Chapter 1: Preliminaries – Machine Architecture and Getting Started with
Rust 7
Technical requirements 8
The machine 8
The CPU 9
Memory and caches 11
Memory model 15
Getting set up 16
The interesting part 18
Debugging Rust programs 19
Summary 22
Further reading 23
Chapter 2: Sequential Rust Performance and Testing 25
Technical requirements 26
Diminishing returns 26
Performance 28
Standard library HashMap 29
Naive HashMap 34
Testing with QuickCheck 39
Testing with American Fuzzy Lop 44
Performance testing with Criterion 47
Inspecting with the Valgrind Suite 50
Inspecting with Linux perf 56
A better naive HashMap 58
Summary 63
Further reading 63
Chapter 3: The Rust Memory Model – Ownership, References and
Manipulation 66
Technical requirements 67
Memory layout 67
Pointers to memory 70
Allocating and deallocating memory 74
The size of a type 75
Static and dynamic dispatch 77
Zero sized types 78
Boxed types 78
Custom allocators 80
Table of Contents

Implementations 80
Option 80
Cell and RefCell 84
Rc 93
Vec 97
Summary 105
Further reading 105
Chapter 4: Sync and Send – the Foundation of Rust Concurrency 108
Technical requirements 109
Sync and Send 109
Racing threads 110
The flaw of the Ring 115
Getting back to safety 119
Safety by exclusion 121
Using MPSC 125
A telemetry server 127
Summary 138
Further reading 138
Chapter 5: Locks – Mutex, Condvar, Barriers and RWLock 141
Technical requirements 142
Read many, write exclusive locks – RwLock 142
Blocking until conditions change – condvar 145
Blocking until the gang's all here - barrier 148
More mutexes, condvars, and friends in action 149
The rocket preparation problem 149
The rope bridge problem 154
Hopper—an MPSC specialization 157
The problem 157
Hopper in use 158
A conceptual view of hopper 161
The deque 162
The Receiver 169
The Sender 171
Testing concurrent data structures 173
QuickCheck and loops 174
Searching for crashes with AFL 180
Benchmarking 183
Summary 188
Further reading 189
Chapter 6: Atomics – the Primitives of Synchronization 190
Technical requirements 191
Linearizability 191
Memory ordering – happens-before and synchronizes-with 194

[ ii ]
Table of Contents

Ordering::Relaxed 195
Ordering::Acquire 196
Ordering::Release 198
Ordering::AcqRel 199
Ordering::SeqCst 200
Building synchronization 202
Mutexes 202
Compare and set mutex 203
An incorrect atomic queue 211
Options to correct the incorrect queue 225
Semaphore 228
Binary semaphore, or, a less wasteful mutex 232
Summary 235
Further reading 235
Chapter 7: Atomics – Safely Reclaiming Memory 238
Technical requirements 239
Approaches to memory reclamation 239
Reference counting 239
Tradeoffs 243
Hazard pointers 246
A hazard-pointer Treiber stack 247
The hazard of Nightly 258
Exercizing the hazard-pointer Treiber stack 258
Tradeoffs 263
Epoch-based reclamation 264
An epoch-based Treiber stack 265
crossbeam_epoch::Atomic 267
crossbeam_epoch::Guard::defer 271
crossbeam_epoch::Local::pin 277
Exercising the epoch-based Treiber stack 280
Tradeoffs 284
Summary 285
Further reading 286
Chapter 8: High-Level Parallelism – Threadpools, Parallel Iterators and
Processes 287
Technical requirements 288
Thread pooling 288
Slowloris – attacking thread-per-connection servers 288
The server 289
The client 294
A thread-pooling server 297
Looking into thread pool 301
The Ethernet sniffer 310
Iterators 318
Smallcheck iteration 319

[ iii ]
Table of Contents

rayon – parallel iterators 324


Data parallelism and OS processes – evolving corewars players 339
Corewars 340
Feruscore – a Corewars evolver 342
Representing the domain 343
Exploring the source 344
Instructions 345
Individuals 348
Mutation and reproduction 349
Competition – calling out to pMARS 351
Main 355
Running feruscore 361
Summary 363
Further reading 363
Chapter 9: FFI and Embedding – Combining Rust and Other
Languages 366
Embedding C into Rust – feruscore without processes 367
The MARS C interface 368
Creating C-structs from Rust 369
Calling C functions 374
Managing cross-language ownership 375
Running the simulation 378
Fuzzing the simulation 381
The feruscore executable 386
Embedding Lua into Rust 393
Embedding Rust 400
Into C 400
The Rust side 401
The C side 403
Into Python 406
Into Erlang/Elixir 407
Summary 415
Further reading 415
Chapter 10: Futurism – Near-Term Rust 417
Technical requirements 418
Near-term improvements 418
SIMD 419
Hex encoding 420
Futures and async/await 426
Specialization 427
Interesting projects 428
Fuzzing 429
Seer, a symbolic execution engine for Rust 429
The community 430
Should I use unsafe? 431

[ iv ]
Table of Contents

Summary 431
Further reading 432
Other Books You May Enjoy 434
Index 437

[v]
Preface
Welcome. The aim of this book is to teach beginner and moderate Rust programmers how
to exploit modern parallel machines in the Rust programming language. This book will
contain a variety of information relevant specifically to the Rust programming language,
especially with regard to its standard library, but it will also contain information that is
more generally applicable but happens to be expressed in Rust. Rust itself is not a terribly
inventive language. Its key contribution, from where I sit, is the mainstreaming of affine
types with application to memory allocation tracking. In most other respects, it is a familiar
systems programming language, one that ought to feel familiarbwith a bit of
adjustmentbto those with a background in GC-less programming languages. This is a
good thing, considering our aim here is to investigate concurrencybthere is a wealth of
information available in the papers and books written about this subject, and we
understand and apply their concepts. This book will reference a number of such works,
whose contexts are C++ , ATS, ADA, and similar languages.

Who this book is for


If this is your first Rust programming book, I warmly thank you for your enthusiasm, but
encourage you to seek out a suitable introduction to the programming language. This book
will hit the ground running, and it will likely not be appropriate if you've got questions
about the basics. The Rust community has produced excellent documentation, including
introductory texts. The Book (IUUQTEPDSVTUMBOHPSHCPPLGJSTUFEJUJPO), first
edition, is how many who are already in the community learned the language. The second
edition of the book, still in progress at the time of writing, looks to be an improvement over
the original text, and it is also recommended. There are many other excellent introductions
widely available for purchase, as well.
Preface

What this book covers


The material that this book covers is very broad, and it attempts to go into that material at
some depth. The material is written so that you can work straight through, but it's also
expected that some readers will only be interested in a subset of the content.

$IBQUFS, Preliminaries ` Machine Architecture and Getting Started with Rust, discusses
modern CPU architectures, focusing specifically on x86 and ARM. These two architectures
will be the focus of the book. The reader is assumed to be familiar with Rust, but we will
also discuss verifying that your installation works as expected.

$IBQUFS, Sequential Rust Performance and Testing, introduces inspecting the performance of
a Rust program. The details of the underlying computer hardware are especially important
in this: cache interactions, memory layout, and exploiting the nature of the problem domain
are key to writing fast programs. However, fast doesn't matter if the results are inaccurate.
This chapter also focuses on testing in Rust.

$IBQUFS, The Rust Memory Model ` Ownership, References and Manipulation, discusses the
memory model of Rust, focusing specifically on what makes Rust memory safe, how the
language is constrained to achieve such safety and how these constraints influence the
fundamental types' implementations. The reader will understand the borrow checker and
its ways at the close of this chapter.

$IBQUFS, Sync and Send ` the Foundation of Rust Concurrency, is the first in which notions of
concurrency make their appearance. The chapter discusses the 4ZOD and 4FOE traits, both
why they exist and their implications. The chapter closes with a concrete demonstration of
a multithreaded Rust program. Not the last, either.

$IBQUFS, Locks ` Mutex, Condvar, Barriers and RWLock, introduces the


coarse synchronization methods available to the Rust programmer. Each is examined in turn
and demonstrated in context of an industrial Rust project, hopper. The
coarse synchronization methods are elaborated on in more detail in a series of smaller
projects and data structures.

$IBQUFS, Atomics ` the Primitives of Synchronization, introduces fine synchronization in


terms of atomic primitives available on all modern CPUs. This is an exceedingly difficult
topic, and a deep investigation into atomic programming and its methods is carried out.
The chapter lock-free, atomic data structures, and production-grade codebases. The reader
will construct many of the coarse synchronization mechanisms seen in $IBQUFS, Locks `
Mutex, Condvar, Barriers and RWLock.

[2]
Preface

$IBQUFS, Atomics ` Safely Reclaiming Memory, discusses at length one of the key
difficulties of atomic programming in any languagebsafely deallocating memory. The
main three methodsbreference counting, hazard pointers, epoch-based reclamationbare
each discussed in great detail, and production-worthy codebases are investigated.
Crossbeam, especially, is discussed in great detail.

$IBQUFS, High-Level Parallelism ` Threadpools, Parallel Iterators and Processes, motivates and
explains the implementation of thread pooling. Having this knowledge in hand, the Rayon
project is investigated and subsequently used in a complex project that benefits greatly
from simple data parallelism.

$IBQUFS, FFI and Embedding ` Combining Rust and Other Languages, extends the final
project of $IBQUFS, High-Level Parallelism ` Threadpools, Parallel Iterators, and Processes by
embedding C code into it. The rlua project, a convenient library to extend Rust programs
with lua programs, is discussed. The chapter closes by compiling Rust for embedding into
C, Python, and Erlang projects.

$IBQUFS, Futurism ` Near-Term Rust, closes the book with a discussion of the near-term
changes to the language that are apropos to parallel programmers, as well as a few
miscellaneous remarks.

To get the most out of this book


This book covers a deep topic in a relatively short space. Throughout the text, the reader is
expected to be comfortable with the Rust programming language, have access to a Rust
compiler and a computer on which to compile, and execute Rust programs. What
additional software appears in this book is covered in $IBQUFS, Preliminaries ` Machine
Architecture and Getting Started with Rust, and it is recommended for use but not
mandatory.

The basic premise of this book is as followsbparallel programming is difficult but not
impossible. Parallel programming can be done, and done well, when attention is paid to the
computing environment and care is put into the validation of the produced program. To
that end, each chapter has been written with an eye toward imparting a solid foundation to
the reader of the chapter's subject. Once a chapter is digested, the reader will, hopefully,
have a solid path into the existing body of literature on that subject. In that, this is a book of
beginnings, not ends.

[3]
Preface

I strongly encourage the reader to take an active role in reading this book, download the
source code, investigate the projects as you read through independent of the book's take,
and probe the running programs with the tools available on your operating system. Like
anything else, parallel programming ability is a skill that is acquired and honed by
practice.

One final noteballow the process of learning to proceed at its own pace. If one chapter's
subject doesn't immediately settle in your mind, that's okay. For me, the process of writing
the book was a confluence of flashes of insight and knowledge that unfolded slowly like a
flower. I imagine that the process of reading the book will proceed analogously.

Download the example code files


The code bundle for the book is hosted on GitHub at IUUQTHJUIVCDPN
1BDLU1VCMJTIJOH)BOET0O$PODVSSFODZXJUI3VTU. In case there's an update to the code,
it will be updated on the existing GitHub repository.

You can also download the example code files for this book from your account
at XXXQBDLUQVCDPN. If you purchased this book elsewhere, you can
visit XXXQBDLUQVCDPNTVQQPSU and register to have the files emailed directly to you.

You can download the code files by following these steps:

1. Log in or register at XXXQBDLUQVCDPN.


2. Select the SUPPORT tab.
3. Click on Code Downloads & Errata.
4. Enter the name of the book in the Search box and follow the onscreen
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Once the file is downloaded, please make sure that you unzip or extract the folder using the
latest version of:

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Zipeg/iZip/UnRarX for Mac
7-Zip/PeaZip for Linux

We also have other code bundles from our rich catalog of books and videos available
at IUUQTHJUIVCDPN1BDLU1VCMJTIJOH. Check them out!

[4]
Preface

Conventions used
There are a number of text conventions used throughout this book.

$PEF*O5FYU: Indicates code words in text, database table names, folder names, filenames,
file extensions, pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter handles. Here is an
example: "The seeds are for 9PS4IJGU3OH, move to previous
line NBY@JO@NFNPSZ@CZUFT and NBY@EJTL@CZUFT are for hopper."

A block of code is set as follows:


GONBJO \
QSJOUMO "QPMMPJTUIFOBNFPGBTQBDFQSPHSBNCVUBMTPNZEPH 
^

Any command-line input or output is written as follows:


> cat hello.rs
fn main() {
println!("Apollo is the name of a space program but also my dog.");
}
> rustc -C opt-level=2 hello.rs
> ./hello
Apollo is the name of a space program but also my dog.

Bold: Indicates a new term, an important word, or words that you see onscreen.

Warnings or important notes appear like this.

Tips and tricks appear like this.

[5]
Preface

Get in touch
Feedback is always welcome.

General feedback: Email GFFECBDL!QBDLUQVCDPN and mention the book title in the
subject of your message. If you have questions about any aspect of this book, please email
us at RVFTUJPOT!QBDLUQVCDPN.

Errata: Although we have taken every care to ensure the accuracy of our content, mistakes
do happen. If you have found a mistake in this book, we would be grateful if you would
report this to us. Please visit XXXQBDLUQVCDPNTVCNJUFSSBUB, selecting your book,
clicking on the Errata Submission Form link, and entering the details.

Piracy: If you come across any illegal copies of our works in any form on the Internet, we
would be grateful if you would provide us with the location address or website name.
Please contact us at DPQZSJHIU!QBDLUQVCDPN with a link to the material.

If you are interested in becoming an author: If there is a topic that you have expertise in
and you are interested in either writing or contributing to a book, please visit
BVUIPSTQBDLUQVCDPN.

Reviews
Please do leave a review for the book on the site that you purchased it from. Reviews help
us at Packt understand what you think about our products, and our authors can see your
feedback on their book. Thank you!

For more information about Packt, please visit QBDLUQVCDPN.

[6]
1
Preliminaries – Machine
Architecture and Getting
Started with Rust
In this chapter, we'll work through the preliminaries of the book, making sure to cover the
basics necessary to frame the remainder of the book. This book is about parallel
programming in the Rust programing language. It's essential, then, to understand modern
computing hardware at a high level. We'll need a sense of how a modern CPU operates,
how memory buses influence the CPU's ability to perform work and what it means for a
computer to be able to do multiple things at once. In addition, we'll discuss validating your
Rust installation, and cover generating executables for the two CPU architectures that this
book will be concerned with.

By the close of this chapter, we will have:

Discussed a high-level model of CPU operations


Discussed a high-level model of computer memory
Had a preliminary discussion of the Rust memory model
Investigated generating runnable Rust programs for x86 and ARM
Investigated debugging these programs
Preliminaries – Machine Architecture and Getting Started with Rust Chapter 1

Technical requirements
This chapter requires any kind of modern computer on which Rust can be installed. The
exact details are covered in depth below. The interested reader might choose to invest in an
ARM development board. I have used a Raspberry Pi 3 Model B while writing. The
Valgrind suite of tools are used below. Many operating systems bundle Valgrind packages,
but you can find further installation instructions for your system at WBMHSJOEPSH. The HEC
and MMEC tools are used, often installed along with the gcc and llvm compiler toolchains.

You can find the source code for this book's projects on GitHub: IUUQTHJUIVCDPN
1BDLU1VCMJTIJOH)BOET0O$PODVSSFODZXJUI3VTU. This chapter has no relevant source
code.

The machine
In this book, independent of the specific Rust techniques, we'll attempt to teach a kind of
mechanical sympathy with the modern parallel computer. There are two model kinds of
parallelism we'll touch onbconcurrent memory operations and data parallelism. We'll
spend most of our time in this book on concurrent memory operations, the kind of
parallelism in which multiple CPUs contend to manipulate a shared, addressable memory.
Data parallelism, where the CPU is able to operate with a single or multiple instructions on
multiple words at a time concurrently, will be touched on, but the details are CPU specific,
and the necessary intrinsics are only now becoming available in the base language as this
book goes to press. Fortunately, Rust, as a systems language with modern library
management, will easily allow us to pull in an appropriate library and emit the correct
instructions, or we could inline the assembly ourselves.

Literature on the abstract construction of algorithms for parallel machines must choose a
machine model to operate under. The parallel random access machine (PRAM) is common
in the literature. In this book, we will focus on two concrete machine architectures:

x86
ARM

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