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Hands-On Concurrency
with Rust
$PO`EFOUMZCVJMENFNPSZTBGFQBSBMMFMBOEFaDJFOUTPGUXBSF
JO3VTU
Brian L. Troutwine
BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Hands-On Concurrency with Rust
Copyright a 2018 Packt Publishing
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations
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author, nor Packt Publishing or its dealers and distributors, will be held liable for any damages caused or alleged to
have been caused directly or indirectly by this book.
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mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals. However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy
of this information.
ISBN 978-1-78839-997-5
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For Hope, with whom life is more joyful than I ever imagined.
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Contributors
I'd like to thank Tom Santero for reading early drafts of this book. I'd like also to thank
Miriam Pena, Sonny Scroggin, Irina Guberman, and Brian Mitchell for talking through
what the book was and helping me find, thereby, what it could be. Special thanks to Chris
Markiewicz for being an excellent roommate in high school.
About the reviewer
Daniel Durante is an avid coffee drinker/roaster, motorcyclist, archer, welder, and
carpenter whenever he isn't programming. From the age of 12 years, he has been involved
with web and embedded programming with PHP, Node.js, Golang, Rust, and C.
He has worked on text-based browser games that have reached over million active players,
created bin-packing software for CNC machines, embedded programming with cortex-m
and PIC circuits, high-frequency trading applications, and helped contribute to one of the
oldest ORMs of Node.js (SequelizeJS).
I would like to thank my parents, my brother, and friends who've all put up with my
insanity sitting in front of a computer day in and day out. I would not be here today if it
wasn't for their patience, guidance, and love.
Implementations 80
Option 80
Cell and RefCell 84
Rc 93
Vec 97
Summary 105
Further reading 105
Chapter 4: Sync and Send – the Foundation of Rust Concurrency 108
Technical requirements 109
Sync and Send 109
Racing threads 110
The flaw of the Ring 115
Getting back to safety 119
Safety by exclusion 121
Using MPSC 125
A telemetry server 127
Summary 138
Further reading 138
Chapter 5: Locks – Mutex, Condvar, Barriers and RWLock 141
Technical requirements 142
Read many, write exclusive locks – RwLock 142
Blocking until conditions change – condvar 145
Blocking until the gang's all here - barrier 148
More mutexes, condvars, and friends in action 149
The rocket preparation problem 149
The rope bridge problem 154
Hopper—an MPSC specialization 157
The problem 157
Hopper in use 158
A conceptual view of hopper 161
The deque 162
The Receiver 169
The Sender 171
Testing concurrent data structures 173
QuickCheck and loops 174
Searching for crashes with AFL 180
Benchmarking 183
Summary 188
Further reading 189
Chapter 6: Atomics – the Primitives of Synchronization 190
Technical requirements 191
Linearizability 191
Memory ordering – happens-before and synchronizes-with 194
[ ii ]
Table of Contents
Ordering::Relaxed 195
Ordering::Acquire 196
Ordering::Release 198
Ordering::AcqRel 199
Ordering::SeqCst 200
Building synchronization 202
Mutexes 202
Compare and set mutex 203
An incorrect atomic queue 211
Options to correct the incorrect queue 225
Semaphore 228
Binary semaphore, or, a less wasteful mutex 232
Summary 235
Further reading 235
Chapter 7: Atomics – Safely Reclaiming Memory 238
Technical requirements 239
Approaches to memory reclamation 239
Reference counting 239
Tradeoffs 243
Hazard pointers 246
A hazard-pointer Treiber stack 247
The hazard of Nightly 258
Exercizing the hazard-pointer Treiber stack 258
Tradeoffs 263
Epoch-based reclamation 264
An epoch-based Treiber stack 265
crossbeam_epoch::Atomic 267
crossbeam_epoch::Guard::defer 271
crossbeam_epoch::Local::pin 277
Exercising the epoch-based Treiber stack 280
Tradeoffs 284
Summary 285
Further reading 286
Chapter 8: High-Level Parallelism – Threadpools, Parallel Iterators and
Processes 287
Technical requirements 288
Thread pooling 288
Slowloris – attacking thread-per-connection servers 288
The server 289
The client 294
A thread-pooling server 297
Looking into thread pool 301
The Ethernet sniffer 310
Iterators 318
Smallcheck iteration 319
[ iii ]
Table of Contents
[ iv ]
Table of Contents
Summary 431
Further reading 432
Other Books You May Enjoy 434
Index 437
[v]
Preface
Welcome. The aim of this book is to teach beginner and moderate Rust programmers how
to exploit modern parallel machines in the Rust programming language. This book will
contain a variety of information relevant specifically to the Rust programming language,
especially with regard to its standard library, but it will also contain information that is
more generally applicable but happens to be expressed in Rust. Rust itself is not a terribly
inventive language. Its key contribution, from where I sit, is the mainstreaming of affine
types with application to memory allocation tracking. In most other respects, it is a familiar
systems programming language, one that ought to feel familiarbwith a bit of
adjustmentbto those with a background in GC-less programming languages. This is a
good thing, considering our aim here is to investigate concurrencybthere is a wealth of
information available in the papers and books written about this subject, and we
understand and apply their concepts. This book will reference a number of such works,
whose contexts are C++ , ATS, ADA, and similar languages.
$IBQUFS, Preliminaries ` Machine Architecture and Getting Started with Rust, discusses
modern CPU architectures, focusing specifically on x86 and ARM. These two architectures
will be the focus of the book. The reader is assumed to be familiar with Rust, but we will
also discuss verifying that your installation works as expected.
$IBQUFS, Sequential Rust Performance and Testing, introduces inspecting the performance of
a Rust program. The details of the underlying computer hardware are especially important
in this: cache interactions, memory layout, and exploiting the nature of the problem domain
are key to writing fast programs. However, fast doesn't matter if the results are inaccurate.
This chapter also focuses on testing in Rust.
$IBQUFS, The Rust Memory Model ` Ownership, References and Manipulation, discusses the
memory model of Rust, focusing specifically on what makes Rust memory safe, how the
language is constrained to achieve such safety and how these constraints influence the
fundamental types' implementations. The reader will understand the borrow checker and
its ways at the close of this chapter.
$IBQUFS, Sync and Send ` the Foundation of Rust Concurrency, is the first in which notions of
concurrency make their appearance. The chapter discusses the 4ZOD and 4FOE traits, both
why they exist and their implications. The chapter closes with a concrete demonstration of
a multithreaded Rust program. Not the last, either.
[2]
Preface
$IBQUFS, Atomics ` Safely Reclaiming Memory, discusses at length one of the key
difficulties of atomic programming in any languagebsafely deallocating memory. The
main three methodsbreference counting, hazard pointers, epoch-based reclamationbare
each discussed in great detail, and production-worthy codebases are investigated.
Crossbeam, especially, is discussed in great detail.
$IBQUFS, High-Level Parallelism ` Threadpools, Parallel Iterators and Processes, motivates and
explains the implementation of thread pooling. Having this knowledge in hand, the Rayon
project is investigated and subsequently used in a complex project that benefits greatly
from simple data parallelism.
$IBQUFS, FFI and Embedding ` Combining Rust and Other Languages, extends the final
project of $IBQUFS, High-Level Parallelism ` Threadpools, Parallel Iterators, and Processes by
embedding C code into it. The rlua project, a convenient library to extend Rust programs
with lua programs, is discussed. The chapter closes by compiling Rust for embedding into
C, Python, and Erlang projects.
$IBQUFS, Futurism ` Near-Term Rust, closes the book with a discussion of the near-term
changes to the language that are apropos to parallel programmers, as well as a few
miscellaneous remarks.
The basic premise of this book is as followsbparallel programming is difficult but not
impossible. Parallel programming can be done, and done well, when attention is paid to the
computing environment and care is put into the validation of the produced program. To
that end, each chapter has been written with an eye toward imparting a solid foundation to
the reader of the chapter's subject. Once a chapter is digested, the reader will, hopefully,
have a solid path into the existing body of literature on that subject. In that, this is a book of
beginnings, not ends.
[3]
Preface
I strongly encourage the reader to take an active role in reading this book, download the
source code, investigate the projects as you read through independent of the book's take,
and probe the running programs with the tools available on your operating system. Like
anything else, parallel programming ability is a skill that is acquired and honed by
practice.
One final noteballow the process of learning to proceed at its own pace. If one chapter's
subject doesn't immediately settle in your mind, that's okay. For me, the process of writing
the book was a confluence of flashes of insight and knowledge that unfolded slowly like a
flower. I imagine that the process of reading the book will proceed analogously.
You can also download the example code files for this book from your account
at XXXQBDLUQVCDPN. If you purchased this book elsewhere, you can
visit XXXQBDLUQVCDPNTVQQPSU and register to have the files emailed directly to you.
Once the file is downloaded, please make sure that you unzip or extract the folder using the
latest version of:
We also have other code bundles from our rich catalog of books and videos available
at IUUQTHJUIVCDPN1BDLU1VCMJTIJOH. Check them out!
[4]
Preface
Conventions used
There are a number of text conventions used throughout this book.
$PEF*O5FYU: Indicates code words in text, database table names, folder names, filenames,
file extensions, pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter handles. Here is an
example: "The seeds are for 9PS4IJGU3OH, move to previous
line NBY@JO@NFNPSZ@CZUFT and NBY@EJTL@CZUFT are for hopper."
Bold: Indicates a new term, an important word, or words that you see onscreen.
[5]
Preface
Get in touch
Feedback is always welcome.
General feedback: Email GFFECBDL!QBDLUQVCDPN and mention the book title in the
subject of your message. If you have questions about any aspect of this book, please email
us at RVFTUJPOT!QBDLUQVCDPN.
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do happen. If you have found a mistake in this book, we would be grateful if you would
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feedback on their book. Thank you!
[6]
1
Preliminaries – Machine
Architecture and Getting
Started with Rust
In this chapter, we'll work through the preliminaries of the book, making sure to cover the
basics necessary to frame the remainder of the book. This book is about parallel
programming in the Rust programing language. It's essential, then, to understand modern
computing hardware at a high level. We'll need a sense of how a modern CPU operates,
how memory buses influence the CPU's ability to perform work and what it means for a
computer to be able to do multiple things at once. In addition, we'll discuss validating your
Rust installation, and cover generating executables for the two CPU architectures that this
book will be concerned with.
Technical requirements
This chapter requires any kind of modern computer on which Rust can be installed. The
exact details are covered in depth below. The interested reader might choose to invest in an
ARM development board. I have used a Raspberry Pi 3 Model B while writing. The
Valgrind suite of tools are used below. Many operating systems bundle Valgrind packages,
but you can find further installation instructions for your system at WBMHSJOEPSH. The HEC
and MMEC tools are used, often installed along with the gcc and llvm compiler toolchains.
You can find the source code for this book's projects on GitHub: IUUQTHJUIVCDPN
1BDLU1VCMJTIJOH)BOET0O$PODVSSFODZXJUI3VTU. This chapter has no relevant source
code.
The machine
In this book, independent of the specific Rust techniques, we'll attempt to teach a kind of
mechanical sympathy with the modern parallel computer. There are two model kinds of
parallelism we'll touch onbconcurrent memory operations and data parallelism. We'll
spend most of our time in this book on concurrent memory operations, the kind of
parallelism in which multiple CPUs contend to manipulate a shared, addressable memory.
Data parallelism, where the CPU is able to operate with a single or multiple instructions on
multiple words at a time concurrently, will be touched on, but the details are CPU specific,
and the necessary intrinsics are only now becoming available in the base language as this
book goes to press. Fortunately, Rust, as a systems language with modern library
management, will easily allow us to pull in an appropriate library and emit the correct
instructions, or we could inline the assembly ourselves.
Literature on the abstract construction of algorithms for parallel machines must choose a
machine model to operate under. The parallel random access machine (PRAM) is common
in the literature. In this book, we will focus on two concrete machine architectures:
x86
ARM
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