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Cyber Threat Intelligence
Cyber Threat Intelligence

Martin Lee
Oxford, UK
Copyright © 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐­in‐­Publication Data

Names: Lee, Martin (Computer security expert), author.

Title: Cyber threat intelligence / Martin Lee.
Description: Oxford, UK ; Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley, 2023. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022047002 (print) | LCCN 2022047003 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119861744 | ISBN 9781119861751 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119861768
(epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Cyber intelligence (Computer security) |
Cyberterrorism–Prevention. | Cyberspace operations (Military science)
Classification: LCC TK5105.59 .L47 2023 (print) | LCC TK5105.59 (ebook) |
DDC 005.8/7–dc23/eng/20221205
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022047002
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022047003
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © Yuichiro Chino/Getty images
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India
 v

Contents

Preface xi
About the Author xiii
Abbreviations xv
Endorsements for Martin Lee’s Book xix

1 Introduction 1
1.1 ­Definitions 1
1.1.1 Intelligence 2
1.1.2 Cyber Threat 3
1.1.3 Cyber Threat Intelligence 4
1.2 ­History of Threat Intelligence 5
1.2.1 Antiquity 5
1.2.2 Ancient Rome 7
1.2.3 Medieval and Renaissance Age 8
1.2.4 Industrial Age 10
1.2.5 World War I 11
1.2.6 World War II 13
1.2.7 Post War Intelligence 14
1.2.8 Cyber Threat Intelligence 15
1.2.9 Emergence of Private Sector Intelligence Sharing 19
1.3 ­Utility of Threat Intelligence 21
1.3.1 Developing Cyber Threat Intelligence 23
­Summary 24
­References 24

2 Threat Environment 31
2.1 ­Threat 31
2.1.1 Threat Classification 33
2.2 ­Risk and Vulnerability 35
2.2.1 Human Vulnerabilities 38
vi Contents

2.2.1.1 Example – Business Email Compromise 39

2.2.2 Configuration Vulnerabilities 39
2.2.2.1 Example – Misconfiguration of Cloud Storage 40
2.2.3 Software Vulnerabilities 41
2.2.3.1 Example – Log4j Vulnerabilities 43
2.3 ­Threat Actors 43
2.3.1 Example – Operation Payback 46
2.3.2 Example – Stuxnet 47
2.3.3 Tracking Threat Actors 47
2.4 ­TTPs – Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures 49
2.5 ­Victimology 53
2.5.1 Diamond Model 55
2.6 ­Threat Landscape 56
2.6.1 Example – Ransomware 57
2.7 ­Attack Vectors, Vulnerabilities, and Exploits 58
2.7.1 Email Attack Vectors 59
2.7.2 Web-Based Attacks 60
2.7.3 Network Service Attacks 61
2.7.4 Supply Chain Attacks 61
2.8 ­The Kill Chain 62
2.9 ­Untargeted versus Targeted Attacks 64
2.10 ­Persistence 65
2.11 ­Thinking Like a Threat Actor 66
­Summary 66
­References 67

3 Applying Intelligence 75
3.1 ­Planning Intelligence Gathering 75
3.1.1 The Intelligence Programme 77
3.1.2 Principles of Intelligence 78
3.1.3 Intelligence Metrics 81
3.2 ­The Intelligence Cycle 82
3.2.1 Planning, Requirements, and Direction 83
3.2.2 Collection 84
3.2.3 Analysis and Processing 84
3.2.4 Production 85
3.2.5 Dissemination 85
3.2.6 Review 85
3.3 ­Situational Awareness 86
3.3.1 Example – 2013 Target Breach 88
3.4 ­Goal Oriented Security and Threat Modelling 89
 Contents vii

3.5 ­ trategic, Operational, and Tactical Intelligence 91

S
3.5.1 Strategic Intelligence 91
3.5.1.1 Example – Lazarus Group 92
3.5.2 Operational Intelligence 93
3.5.2.1 Example – SamSam 93
3.5.3 Tactical Intelligence 94
3.5.3.1 Example – WannaCry 94
3.5.4 Sources of Intelligence Reports 94
3.5.4.1 Example – Shamoon 95
3.6 ­Incident Preparedness and Response 96
3.6.1 Preparation and Practice 99
­Summary 100
­References 100

4 Collecting Intelligence 105

4.1 ­Hierarchy of Evidence 105
4.1.1 Example – Smoking Tobacco Risk 107
4.2 ­Understanding Intelligence 108
4.2.1 Expressing Credibility 109
4.2.2 Expressing Confidence 110
4.2.3 Understanding Errors 114
4.2.3.1 Example – the WannaCry Email 114
4.2.3.2 Example – the Olympic Destroyer False Flags 114
4.3 ­Third ­Party Intelligence Reports 115
4.3.1 Tactical and Operational Reports 116
4.3.1.1 Example – Heartbleed 117
4.3.2 Strategic Threat Reports 118
4.4 ­Internal Incident Reports 118
4.5 ­Root Cause Analysis 119
4.6 ­Active Intelligence Gathering 120
4.6.1 Example – the Nightingale Floor 122
4.6.2 Example – the Macron Leaks 122
­Summary 123
­References 123

5 Generating Intelligence 127

5.1 ­The Intelligence Cycle in Practice 128
5.1.1 See it, Sense it, Share it, Use it 128
5.1.2 F3EAD Cycle 129
5.1.3 D3A Process 131
5.1.4 Applying the Intelligence Cycle 132
viii Contents

5.1.4.1 Planning and Requirements 132

5.1.4.2 Collection, Analysis, and Processing 133
5.1.4.3 Production and Dissemination 134
5.1.4.4 Feedback and Improvement 135
5.1.4.5 The Intelligence Cycle in Reverse 135
5.2 ­Sources of Data 136
5.3 ­Searching Data 137
5.4 ­Threat Hunting 138
5.4.1 Models of Threat Hunting 139
5.4.2 Analysing Data 140
5.4.3 Entity Behaviour Analytics 143
5.5 ­Transforming Data into Intelligence 144
5.5.1 Structured Geospatial Analytical Method 144
5.5.2 Analysis of Competing Hypotheses 146
5.5.3 Poor Practices 146
5.6 ­Sharing Intelligence 147
5.6.1 Machine Readable Intelligence 150
5.7 ­Measuring the Effectiveness of Generated Intelligence 151
­Summary 152
­References 152

6 Attribution 155
6.1 ­Holding Perpetrators to Account 155
6.1.1 Punishment 156
6.1.2 Legal Frameworks 156
6.1.3 Cyber Crime Legislation 157
6.1.4 International Law 158
6.1.5 Crime and Punishment 158
6.2 ­Standards of Proof 158
6.2.1 Forensic Evidence 159
6.3 ­Mechanisms of Attribution 160
6.3.1 Attack Attributes 161
6.3.1.1 Attacker TTPs 161
6.3.1.2 Example – HAFNIUM 162
6.3.1.3 Attacker Infrastructure 162
6.3.1.4 Victimology 163
6.3.1.5 Malicious Code 163
6.3.2 Asserting Attribution 165
6.4 ­Anti-­Attribution Techniques 166
6.4.1 Infrastructure 166
6.4.2 Malicious Tools 166
6.4.3 False Attribution 167
 Contents ix

6.4.4 Chains of Attribution 167

6.5 ­Third Party Attribution 167
6.6 ­Using Attribution 168
­Summary 170
­References 171

7 Professionalism 175
7.1 ­Notions of Professionalism 176
7.1.1 Professional Ethics 177
7.2 ­Developing a New Profession 178
7.2.1 Professional Education 178
7.2.2 Professional Behaviour and Ethics 179
7.2.2.1 Professionalism in Medicine 179
7.2.2.2 Professionalism in Accountancy 181
7.2.2.3 Professionalism in Engineering 183
7.2.3 Certifications and Codes of Ethics 186
7.3 ­Behaving Ethically 188
7.3.1 The Five Philosophical Approaches 188
7.3.2 The Josephson Model 189
7.3.3 PMI Ethical Decision ­Making Framework 190
7.4 ­Legal and Ethical Environment 191
7.4.1 Planning 192
7.4.1.1 Responsible Vulnerability Disclosure 193
7.4.1.2 Vulnerability Hoarding 194
7.4.2 Collection, Analysis, and Processing 194
7.4.2.1 PRISM Programme 195
7.4.2.2 Open and Closed Doors 196
7.4.3 Dissemination 196
7.4.3.1 Doxxing 197
7.5 ­Managing the Unexpected 198
7.6 ­Continuous Improvement 199
­Summary 199
­References 200

8 Future Threats and Conclusion 207

8.1 ­Emerging Technologies 207
8.1.1 Smart Buildings 208
8.1.1.1 Software Errors 209
8.1.1.2 Example – Maroochy Shire Incident 210
8.1.2 Health Care 211
8.1.2.1 Example – Conti Attack Against Irish Health Sector 212
8.1.3 Transport Systems 213
x Contents

8.2 ­Emerging Attacks 214

8.2.1 Threat Actor Evolutions 214
8.2.1.1 Criminal Threat Actors 214
8.2.1.2 Nation State Threat Actors 216
8.2.1.3 Other Threat Actors 220
8.3 ­Emerging Workforce 221
8.3.1 Job Roles and Skills 221
8.3.2 Diversity in Hiring 225
8.3.3 Growing the Profession 227
8.4 ­Conclusion 228
­References 229

9 Case Studies 237

9.1 ­Target Compromise 2013 238
9.1.1 Background 238
9.1.2 The Attack 241
9.2 ­WannaCry 2017 243
9.2.1 Background 244
9.2.1.1 Guardians of Peace 244
9.2.1.2 The Shadow Brokers 245
9.2.1.3 Threat Landscape – Worms and Ransomware 247
9.2.2 The Attack 247
9.2.2.1 Prelude 247
9.2.2.2 Malware 249
9.3 ­NotPetya 2017 251
9.3.1 Background 251
9.3.2 The Attack 252
9.3.2.1 Distribution 253
9.3.2.2 Payload 253
9.3.2.3 Spread and Consequences 254
9.4 ­VPNFilter 2018 255
9.4.1 Background 255
9.4.2 The Attack 256
9.5 ­SUNBURST and SUNSPOT 2020 257
9.5.1 Background 258
9.5.2 The Attack 259
9.6 ­Macron Leaks 2017 260
9.6.1 Background 260
9.6.2 The Attack 261
­References 262

Index 277
 xi

Preface

Cyber Threat Intelligence describes the intelligence techniques and models used in
cyber threat intelligence. It provides a survey of ideas, views, and concepts, rather
than offering a hands-­on practical guide. It is intended for anyone who wishes to
learn more about the domain, possibly because they wish to develop a career in
intelligence, and as a reference for those already working in the area.
The origins of this book lie in an awkward dinner conversation. I was on one
side of the table, a software engineer who had fallen into the domain of cyber
security more or less by accident. On the other was a uniformed senior military
intelligence officer. A shared professional interest in cyber threat intelligence led
to our being invited to the same event.
Keen to learn how better to analyse the attacks that I was encountering, I tried
to learn all that I could about intelligence techniques from my neighbour. Naively,
I had hoped that there might be a text book that set out the approaches that I could
try to apply to identify attackers. At the very least, I was certain that there must be
conceptual models, which I could adapt from the intelligence world to make
better use of my data.
Instead, I discovered that military intelligence officers do not impart their
knowledge to civilians easily, nor do they particularly appreciate lengthy ques-
tioning about the details of their profession. My conclusion was that I would have
to develop my own body of knowledge regarding intelligence techniques and
learn how to apply these to the emerging issue of cyber security.
This book is the result of that dinner. It is the book that I had hoped to discover
when I started working in the nascent domain of cyber threat intelligence. It is the
book that outlines the concepts and theories, which serve as the foundation of
sound professional practice and the development of new practical applications.
Cyber threat intelligence is so much more than feeds of technical indicators relat-
ing to current cyber attacks. It is a discipline that is distinct from forensic cyber
analysis, or malware analysis, seeking not necessarily to supply raw information
detailing attacks, but to enrich such information to provide understanding.
xii Preface

Many working in the domain of cyber threat intelligence have been formally
trained in intelligence through having followed careers in the military or law
enforcement. However, professional obligations to protect sensitive operational
details mean that it is often difficult to share knowledge and competences devel-
oped over long careers.
As a civilian working in the private sector, I have learned what I can about tra-
ditional threat intelligence theories and techniques from declassified or open-­
source material under the mentorship of formally trained senior colleagues. The
nascent domain of cyber security has also had to develop its own specialised tech-
niques and vocabulary derived from a large community of people working
together to solve new problems.
This book is a collection of the techniques and theories that underpin the prac-
tice of cyber threat intelligence. The domain continues to evolve rapidly. The day-­
to-­day tools and analyses performed by threat intelligence teams may change
frequently, but the theory and frameworks in which these activities take place are
well developed. It is these mature, evolved disciplines that this book seeks to
describe.
This book approaches cyber threat intelligence from a perspective that is west-
ern and predominantly that of NATO and EU countries. Although the book is not
partisan in nature, the reader should be aware that there are other perspectives.
I am indebted to a long line of people with whom I have worked over the years,
who have helped me discover resources and techniques, and who have given me
support and encouragement. This book has benefitted from the wisdom and over-
sight of Dr. Herb Mattord, Dr. Jonathan Lusthaus, Vanja Svajcer, Paul King,
Wendy Nather, Don Taggart, and Natasha King who helped in the preparation of
the manuscript.
 xiii

About the Author

As EMEA Lead of the Strategic Planning and Communication team within

Talos, Cisco’s threat intelligence and security research organisation, Martin Lee
researches the latest developments in cyber security and endeavours to ensure
that organisations are aware of emerging threats and how to mitigate them.
Having worked in the field of detecting cyber threats since 2003, he has estab-
lished and led threat intelligence teams on three continents. A Certified
Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP) and a Chartered Engineer,
Martin holds degrees from the Universities of Bristol, Cambridge, Paris-­Sud, and
Oxford. He is a member of the technical advisory board to Europol, and has deliv-
ered lectures on threat intelligence to students at the Universities of Oxford,
Warwick, Kennesaw State, and l’Ecole Polytechnique, Paris.
An England Athletics licenced leader in running fitness, when not sat in front
of a screen, Martin is often found running in the countryside or encouraging
­others to run for pleasure.
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