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A01_PRAK8939_02_SE_FM.indd Page i 7/14/11 4:56 PM user-f462 /Volumes/207/PEAR525

The
Indian Economy
Since 1991
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This page is intentionally left blank.

A01_PRAK8939_02_SE_FM.indd Page iii 7/14/11 4:56 PM user-f462 /Volumes/207/PEAR525

The
Indian Economy
Since 1991
Economic Reforms and Performance
(Second Edition)

Edited by
B. A. Prakash

Delhi • Chennai • Chandigarh

A01_PRAK8939_02_SE_FM.indd Page iv 7/14/11 4:56 PM user-f462 /Volumes/207/PEAR525

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.

Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia

No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’s prior
written consent.

This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher reserves the
right to remove any material present in this eBook at any time.

ISBN 9788131758939
eISBN 9789332501225

Head Office: A-8(A), Sector 62, Knowledge Boulevard, 7th Floor, NOIDA 201 309, India
Registered Office: 11 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India
A01_PRAK8939_02_SE_FM.indd Page v 7/14/11 4:56 PM user-f462 /Volumes/207/PEAR525

Contents

List of Tables ix
List of Figures xviii
Foreword xx
Preface xxii
About the Editor and Contributors xxv

I. INTRODUCTION
1. Overview 1
B. A. Prakash
2. Economic Reforms and Performance of Indian Economy 17
B. A. Prakash
3. Global Economic Crisis and Indian Economy 45
B. A. Prakash

II. DEMOGRAPHY, EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT

4. Demographic Changes in India 58
S. Irudaya Rajan and Sabu Aliyar
5. Trends and Patterns of Employment in India 73
B. A. Prakash and M. P. Abraham
6. Trends and Characteristics of Unemployment in India 94
B. A. Prakash and M. P. Abraham

III. PLANNING
7. Economic Planning in India 107
C. Narayan Lal and S. Rajesh Kumar

IV. FINANCIAL AND FISCAL SECTOR REFORMS

8. Financial Liberalization and Corporate Financing in India 135
V. R. Prabhakaran Nair
9. Finances of the Central Government (1991–2010) 156
M. R. Anand
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vi Contents

10. Monetary and Credit Policy Reforms in India 189

V. R. Prabhakaran Nair
11. Capital Market in the Post-Liberalization Period:
Reforms and Emerging Trends 202
V. K. Vijayakumar
12. Inflation in India 216
S. Narayanan

V. EXTERNAL SECTOR
13. External Sector Reforms in India 227
V. R. Prabhakaran Nair
14. Trends and Patterns of Merchandise Exports and Imports of India
in the Post-Liberalization Era 241
Manu J. Vettickan and R. Anil Varma
15. Foreign Direct Investment in India in the Post-1991 Period 258
Sharat Kumar and A. Srija
16. World Trade Organization and Indian Economy 273
Archana S. Mathur
17. Capital Account Convertibility in India 287
B. A. Prakash

VI. AGRICULTURE
18. Agriculture Policy 308
K. P. Mani
19. Agriculture Growth and Performance 323
K. P. Mani
20. Changes in Land Use and Cropping Pattern 342
P. M. Thomas
21. Agriculture Trade 369
K. P. Mani
22. Agriculture Credit 384
K. P. Mani
23. Trade, Markets and Food Security in India: Issues and Prospects 399
C. S. Sundaresan and P. V. Rajeev

VII. INDUSTRY AND INFRASTRUCTURE

24. Industrial Sector in India and Economic Liberalization 416
Sunil Mani
25. The Emergence of ICT-Based Development Strategy in India: An Analysis of
Policy and Outcome 432
M. Rajesh
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Contents vii

26. Growth of Small-Scale Industries with Reference to Post-Reform Period:

Trends, Issues and Concerns 460
V. R. Prabhakaran Nair
27. Infrastructure Development in India 481
V. R. Prabhakaran Nair
28. Power Policy and Power Development in India During
the Post-Liberalization Period 505
Vijayamohanan Pillai N.

VIII. HEALTH, EDUCATION AND POVERTY

29. Healthcare Financing in India During the Post-Reform Period 530
D. Varatharajan and S. K. Godwin
30. Higher Education in India 548
G. Karunakaran Pillai
31. Trends and Patterns of Poverty in India 568
B. A. Prakash

IX. FEDERAL FINANCE AND DECENTRALIZED PLANNING

32. Centre–State Financial Relations in the Post-Liberalization Period 587
Jose Sebastian
33. Thirteenth Finance Commission: An Overview 604
R. Shyama Nair
34. Decentralized Planning and Local Governance in India 618
E. M. Thomas

APPENDICES
1. Industrial Policy Reforms, 1991–95 629
2. Trade Policy Reforms, 1991–95 632
3. Capital Market Reforms, 1992–95 634
4. Tax Reforms, 1991–95 637
5. Financial Sector Reforms, 1991–94 639
6. Reforms in Infrastructure, 1991–96 641
7. Agricultural Policy Reforms 645
8. Economic Reforms, 1998–99 652
9. Economic Reforms, 1999–2000 656
10. Economic Reforms, 2000–01 659
11. Economic Reforms, 2001–02 662
12. National Population Policy, 2000 665
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viii Contents

13. Policy on Poverty Alleviation and Human Resource Development,

1992–93 666
14. Poverty Alleviation, Employment Generation and
Basic Services Programmes, 2006–07 667
15. Status of Free Trade Agreements, 2006–07 and Regional Trading
Arrangements 670
16. Common Minimum Programme of the UPA Government, May 2004 673

Glossary 677
Index 685
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Ta b l e s

2.1 Annual Average Growth Rates of Indian Economy (At 1999–2000 Prices) 25
2.2 Gross Domestic Product at Factor Cost (Rupees in Crore) (Constant Prices) 26
2.3 Annual Growth Rates of GDP 27
2.4 Sector-wise Growth Rate 28
2.5 Selected Economic Indicators 29
2.6 Indicators of Output 29
2.7 Annual Growth Rate of Industrial Production
(Based on the Index of Industrial Production) 30
2.8 Per-capita Income 31
2.9 Changes in Sectoral Share of GDP at Constant Prices
(1999–2000 Prices) 32
2.10 Gross Domestic Savings and Gross Domestic Capital Formation
(As Per cent of GDP at Current Prices) 33
2.11 Annual Average Inflation Rate Based on WPI 33
2.12 Selected Indicators of External Sector 34
2.13 Balance of Payments: Summary (US $ Million) 35
2.14 Foreign Exchange Reserves (US $ Million) 36
2.15 Sectoral Employment (CDS Basis) 37
2.16 Sectoral Employment Growth (CDS Basis) 38
2.17 Sectoral Employment Shares by Current Daily Status (CDS Basis) 38
2.18 Unemployment Rate in India (CDS Basis) 39
2.19 Estimates of Incidence of Poverty in India 40
3.1 Rate of Growth at Factor Cost at 2004–05 Prices 48
3.2 Quarterly Growth Rates of GDP at Constant 2004–05 Prices 49
3.3 Indicators: Growth, Production and Prices 50
3.4 Indicators: External Sector, Monetary and Fiscal 50
3.5 Per-capita Income and Consumption at 2004–05 Prices 51
3.6 Growth in the Index of Industrial Production (IIP)
and Its Major Components 51
3.7 Index of Industrial Production 52
3.8 Rate of Growth of Gross Capital Formation at 2004–05 Prices 52
3.9 Selected Indicators of the External Sector 53
3.10 Summary of Changes in Foreign Exchange Reserves (US$ Billion) 53
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x List of Tables

3.11 Trend in World Oil Prices (US$ per Barrel of Crude Oil) 54
3.12 Trends in Indian Stock Market Index (SENSEX) 55
4.1 Demographic Indicators for India, 1901–2001 59
4.2 Demographic and Social Profile of States and
Union Territories in India, 2001 60
4.3 Vital Rates and Life Expectancy for India, 1881–2001 64
4.4 Trends in Fertility and Mortality in India, 1971–2002 65
4.5 Vital Indicators for Indian States and Union Territories, 2002 67
4.6 New Growth Rates of Different Religious Communities
in India, 1901–2001 71
5.1 Number of Persons Employed per 1000 Persons (WPR)
According to Usual Status (ps⫹ss) 77
5.2 Employment and Annual Compound Growth Rates
(Usual Status (ps⫹ss)), 1993–94 to 2004–05 79
5.3 Structure of Employment (Usual Status (ps⫹ss)) 80
5.4 Structure of Employment in Rural and Urban Areas
(Usual Status (ps⫹ss)) 81
5.5 Per 1000 Distribution of Employed in Rural Areas by Industry Division
(Usual Status (ps⫹ss)) 82
5.6 Per 1000 Distribution of Employed in Urban Areas by Industry Division
(Usual Status (ps⫹ss)) 83
5.7 Per 1000 Distribution of Employed by Category of Employment
(Usual Status (ps⫹ss)) 85
5.8 Per 1000 Distribution of Employed by Age Group in 2004–05
(Usual Status (ps⫹ss)) 86
5.9 Per 1000 Distribution of the Employed of Age 15 Years and Above
by Education Category in 2004–05 (Usual Status (ps⫹ss)) 87
5.10 Average Wage Earnings (in Rs) per Day Received by Regular Employees
of Age 15–59 Years for Different Education Level (2004–05) 87
5.11 Average Daily Wage for Rural Casual Workers Engaged
in Public Works, All India (2004–05) 88
5.12 Average Daily Wage of Casual Workers Engaged in Works
Other than Public Works, All India (2004–05) 88
6.1 Number of Unemployed and Unemployment Rate in India
(CDS Basis) 97
6.2 Unemployment Rates (per 1000 Persons) According to US (PS),
CWS and CDS in Rural Areas 97
6.3 Unemployment Rates (per 1000 Persons) According to US (PS),
CWS and CDS in Urban Areas 98
6.4 Unemployment Rate in India (per 1000 Persons) 98
6.5 Unemployment Rate (per 1000 Persons in the Labour Force)
Among the Youth (15–29 years) 100
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List of Tables xi

6.6 Unemployment Rate (per 1000 Persons) of Educated Persons of

Age 15 Years and Above (Usual Status (PS)), 2004–05 101
6.7 Unemployment Rate (per 1000 Persons) for the
Persons of Age 15 Years and Above with Different Educational
Attainments—Usual Status (PS) 102
6.8 Unemployment Rates of Rural Agricultural Households
(CDS Basis) 103
7.1 Time Path of Indian Plans 109
7.2 Targeted and Realized Growth Rates of National and per-capita
Output: Different Plans 110
7.3 Sectoral Distribution Plan Outlays 110
7.4 Planning Commission Tenth Plan Targets 120
7.5 Growth and Unemployment Rates 123
7.6 Programme Generated Additional Employment
During the Tenth Plan 123
7.7 Sectoral Growth Rates (% per Annum) 125
7.8 Public–Private Investment in the Tenth Plan 126
7.9 Composition of Saving 126
7.10 Sectoral Allocation—Tenth and Eleventh Plans 128
7.11 Growth of Indian Economy (2007–12)—Actual and
Projected Figures of Various Sectors 134
8.1 Sources of Funds for the Private Corporate Sector 146
9.1 Changing Structure of Finances—Centre 158
9.2 Share of Different Components of Non-debt Receipts 160
9.3 Shortcomings of the Tax System in 1980s 163
9.4 Major Reforms in Direct Taxes After 1991 165
9.5 Major Reforms in Indirect Tax After 1991 166
9.6 Tax–GDP Ratios––Centre 167
9.7 Percentage Share of Different Taxes in Gross Tax Revenues 168
9.8 Percentage Composition of Non-tax Revenue
of the Central Government 169
9.9 Percentage Composition of Centres Expenditure
(Plan and Non-plan, Revenue and Capital) 172
9.10 Changing Composition of Plan Expenditure of the Centre 173
9.11 Non-plan and Plan Expenditures as Percentage of
Total Expenditure of the Government 174
9.12 Interest Payment and Subsidies as Percentage of Net Revenue
Receipts of the Centre 175
9.13 Financing of GFD of the Centre 180
9.14 Fiscal and Revenue Deficit to GDP Ratios (%) 182
9.15 Changes Introduced Towards Improved Budgeting
and Transparency 182
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xii List of Tables

10.1 Composition of Monetary Base 192

10.2 Movements in CRR, SLR and Bank Rate 194
10.3 Lending Rates of Commercial and Term Lending Institutions 195
10.4 Monetary Policy Instruments 199
11.1 Market Design in Indian Securities Markets, 1992 and 2008 211
11.2 Resource Mobilization from the Primary Market (Rupees in Crore) 212
11.3 Reduction of Transactions Costs in India (1994 and 1999) 213
11.4 Stock Price Movements 214
12.1 Annual Average Inflation Rate Based on WPI (per cent) 222
12.2 Annual Average Inflation Rate Based on WPI (per cent) 222
12.3 Annual Average Inflation by Major Heads in WPI (per cent) 223
12.4 Annual Inflation Rate Based in Consumer Price Indices (per cent) 224
14.1 Export, Import, Total Trade and Trade Balance of GDP at Current
Market Prices (in per cent) 244
14.2 Index Numbers and Terms of Foreign Trade 246
14.3 Composition of India’s Exports Share (in per cent) 249
14.4 Composition of India’s Imports Share (in per cent) 251
14.5 India’s Top Trade Partners 252
15.1 Consumption of External Inflows 262
15.2 Foreign Investment Inflows into India (in US Million Dollars) 264
15.3 Year-wise FDI Inflow and Percentage Share of Top Ten Investing
Countries (in Million Rupees) 265
15.4 Sectors Attracting Highest FDI Equity Inflows
(Rupees in Crore) 265
15.5 FDI Inflows by Host Regions and Economies (in Billion Dollars) 266
17.1 Preconditions (per cent) 293
18.1 Procurement and Off-take of Wheat and Rice Under the
Central Pool (Million Tonnes) 311
18.2 Growth of Food Subsidies in India (Rupees in Crore) 311
18.3 Trends in Minimum Support Price and Central Issue Price
(Rs/Quintal) 313
19.1 Characteristics of Three Types of Countries (2005) 324
19.2a Share of Agriculture in India Since 1950 324
19.2b Agriculture Sector: Key Indicators 2007–08 and 2008–09 326
19.3 Average Growth Rates: Overall and in Agriculture
(Percentage per Year at 1999–2000 Prices) 327
19.4 Share of Agriculture and Allied Sectors in Total Gross Capital
Formation (per cent) at 1999–2000 Prices 328
19.5 Utilization Pattern in India (1961–2003) (Million Hectares) 330
19.6 Growth Rate in Output of Various Sub-sectors of Agriculture
(Gross Value of Output at 1999–2000 Prices) 332
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List of Tables xiii

19.7 Gross Area Under Major Crops (Million Hectares) 333

19.8 Production of Major Crops (Million Tonnes) 333
19.9 Yield per Hectare of Major Crops (Kg/Hectare) 334
19.10 Compound Growth Rates of Area, Production and Yield
(Per cent per Annum with Base TE 1981–82 ⫽ 100) 337
19.11 Consumption of Fertilizers in India (in Thousand Tonnes) 338
19.12 Percentage of Irrigated Area in India Under Different Crops 340
19.13 Flow of Institutional Credit to Agriculture and
Allied Activities (Rupees in Crore) 340
19.14 Agency-wise Kisan Credit Cards Issued (Lakh) 341
20.1 Gross Domestic Product from Primary Sector (1980–81 to 2006–07)
(at 1999–2000 Prices) (Rs ’000 Crores) 344
20.2 Annual Growth Rates in GDP at Factor Cost in Agriculture
from 1980–81 to 2006–07 344
20.3 Gross Capital Formation in Agriculture and Allied Sectors
During 1980–81 to 2006–07 (Rupees in Crore) 345
20.4 Distribution of Agricultural Land by Use (1980–81 to 2005–06)
(in Million Hectares) 347
20.5 Area Under Major Crops and Percentage Change in Area
from 1980–81 to 2005–06 (Area in Million Hectare) 348
20.6 Index Numbers of Production and Yield of Food Grain and Non-food
Grain Crops (Base: Triennium Ending 1981–82 ⫽ 100) 349
20.7 Area, Production and Yield of Rice from 1980–81 to 2006–07 Alongwith
Percentage Coverage Under Irrigation (Area in Million Hectare, Production
in Million Tonnes, Yield in Kg/Hectare) 350
20.8 Area, Production and Yield of Wheat from 1980–81 to 2006–07 Alongwith
Percentage Coverage Under Irrigation (Area in Million Hectare, Production
in Million Tonnes, Yield in Kg/Hectare) 351
20.9 Area, Production and Yield of Coarse Cereals from 1980–81 to
2006–07 (Area in Million Hectare, Production in Million Tonnes,
Yield in Kg/Hectare) 352
20.10 Area, Production and Yield of Pulses from 1980–81 to 2006–07 Alongwith
Percentage Coverage Under Irrigation (Area in Million Hectare, Production
in Million Tonnes, Yield in Kg/Hectare) 352
20.11 Area, Production and Yield of Nine Oilseeds from 1980–81 to 2006–07
Alongwith Percentage Coverage Under Irrigation (Area in Million Hectare,
Production in Million Tonnes, Yield in Kg/Hectare) 353
20.12 Area, Production and Yield of Cotton Alongwith Percentage Coverage
Under Irrigation (Area in Million Hectare, Production in Million Bales of
170 Kg Each, Yield in Kg/Hectare) 354
20.13 Area, Production and Yield of Jute and Mesta from 1980–81 to 2006–07
(Area in Million Hectare, Production in Million Tonnes,
Yield in Kg/Hectare) 355
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xiv List of Tables

20.14 Area, Production and Yield of Sugar Cane Alongwith Percentage Coverage
Under Irrigation (Area in Million Hectare, Production in Million Tonnes,
Yield in Kg/Hectare) 356
20.15 Performance of South-West Monsoon During 1989 to 2009
(1 June–30 September) 358
20.16 Area Under Irrigation and Percentage Coverage of Irrigated Area
(Area in Million Hectare) 359
20.17 Consumption of Fertilizers (NPK) and per Hectare Use
(1980–81 to 2006–07) 360
20.18 Distribution of Certified/Quality Seeds (1990–91 to 2006–07)
(Lakh Quintals) 361
20.19 Distribution of Operational Holdings (Number of Holdings: ’000; Area:
’000 Hectares; Average Size: Hectares) 362
21.1 India’s Foreign Trade (Rupees in Crore) 370
21.2 Trade Balance of India from Agriculture Sector
Between 1950–51 to 1980–81 372
21.3 Exports of Principal Agricultural and Allied Commodities
(US Million Dollars) 373
21.4 Exports of Principal Agricultural and Allied
Commodities (Rupees in Crore) 374
21.5 Export of Tea to Principal Countries (in US Million Dollars) 375
21.6 Export of Coffee to Principal Countries (in US Million Dollars) 376
21.7 Export of Rice to Principal Countries (in US Million Dollars) 377
21.8 Export of Spices to Principal Countries (in US Million Dollars) 378
21.9 Export of Cashew to Principal Countries (in US Million Dollars) 378
21.10 Export of Marine Products to Principal Countries
(in US Million Dollars) 379
21.11 Imports of Principal Agricultural and Allied Commodities
(in US Million Dollars) 381
21.12 Imports of Principal Agricultural and Allied
Commodities (Rupees in Crore) 381
22.1 Credit Flow to Agriculture Sector by Cooperatives (Rupees in Crore) 387
22.2 Credit Flow to Agriculture Sector by
Commercial Banks (Rupees in Crore) 388
22.3 Credit Flow to Agriculture Sector by Regional
Rural Banks (Rupees in Crore) 389
22.4 Flow of Institutional Credit for Agriculture and Allied
Activities 1991–92 to 2008–09 (Rupees in Crore) 390
22.5 Growth and Composition of Investment in Agriculture
(Rupees in Crore) 391
22.6 Agency-wise Details of Kisan Credit Cards Issued (in Lakhs) 395
22.7 Agency-wise Amount Sanctioned Through Kisan Credit Cards
(Rupees in Crore) 395
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List of Tables xv

22.8 Progress Under SHG Bank Linkage 396

23.1 Dimensions of Food Insecurity 401
23.2 Food Security Index: South Asia 402
23.3 Production of Food Grains in India (in Million Tonnes) 403
23.4 Per-capita Net Availability of Food Grains in India (Kgs/Year) 403
23.5 Long Run Demand–Supply Gap of Food Grains (Cereals) in India 405
23.6 Food Subsidy of the Central Government 406
23.7 Estimates of Food Shortage in South Asia by 2020 409
23.8 Welfare and Supply Effects of Trade Liberalization on
World Food Markets 413
24.1 Rate of Growth of the Manufacturing Sector:
Pre- and Post-liberalization Periods 418
24.2 Growth Performance of the Manufacturing Sector
(Annual Average Growth Rates in per cent) 419
24.3 Trends of Employment in the Organized Manufacturing
Sector in India (in Millions) 420
24.4 Degree of Competition in Indian Industries, 1985–2001
(Based on Herfindahl Index of Sales) 423
24.5 Trends in Net Foreign Direct Investment to India, 1991 427
24.6 Trends in Inward and Outward FDI to India (Millions of US$) 428
24.7 Divestiture Proceeds in India 430
25.1 International Comparison of ICT Diffusion 445
25.2 Kerala’s Investment in E-Governance, 2005 455
26.1 Growth Pattern in the Number of Small-scale Industries (SSIs) 465
26.2 Production Growth of SSI Sector in Comparison to
Overall Industrial Sector 466
26.3 Contribution of SSI Units to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
and Total Industrial Production (in per cent) 467
26.4 Growth of Production and Employment in SSI 468
26.5 Employment Generation in SSIs—Targets and Achievements 469
26.6 Growth of Exports of SSIs 470
26.7 Exports of Major Products of SSI Sector 471
26.8 Flow of Credit from Commercial Banks to SSI Sector 473
26.9 Credit Flow to Tiny Sectors from Public Sector
Commercial Banks—As on 31 March 474
26.10 Sickness in SSI Sector in India 476
27.1 Growth in Various Economic Infrastructural Facilities in India 482
27.2 Trends in the Growth of Physical Output in Transport and
Communications (Annual Percentage Change) 483
27.3 Budget Share on the Transport Sector in India (in per cent) 484
27.4 The Gauge-wise Route and Track Lengths—Indian Railways 485
27.5 Progress of Railways Traffic and Inputs 486
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xvi List of Tables

27.6 Performance of Railways 487

27.7 Operations of Road Transport 489
27.8 Progress of the NHDP on November 2005 492
27.9 Period-wise Annual Average Growth Rates and Shares of
Major Commodities Handled at all Major Ports in India
During 1971–72 to 2004–05 493
27.10 Growth Rates and Shares of Principal Commodities
in Cargo Traffic at Major Ports in India—1991–2005 494
27.11 Growth Rates and Share of Coastal and
Overseas Cargo—1991–2005 496
27.12 Traffic and Cargo Handled in Airports 498
27.13 Domestic and International Passengers Flown 499
27.14 Growth of Telephones Over the Years 501
27.15 Minimum Effective Charge for Local Calls 501
27.16 Tariff for National Long Distance (NLD) Calls 501
27.17 Tariff for International Long Distance (ILD) Calls 502
27.18 Postal Network—International Comparisons 503
28.1 Status of Private Power Projects (PPPs) (Since 1991) 518
29.1 High Income and Poor Health
(WHO, 2004; World Bank, 2004) 533
29.2 Countries Spending Less on Health but Having Higher Life
Expectancy (2008) 535
29.3 Basic Health Indicators—Comparison with the Best (2008) 536
29.4 Some Key Health System Indicators in India (2007) 537
29.5 Sources of Healthcare Spending in India, 2004–05 (in Rupees) 539
30.1 Statewise Statement of Universities, Deemed Universities and
Institutions of National Importance, Colleges and Enrollment
of Students in 2003–04 551
30.2 Stage-wise Enrollment of Students, 2003–04 552
30.3 Faculty-wise Enrolment of Students, 2003–04 553
30.4 Distribution of Teaching Staff in University Departments
and Affiliated Colleges in 2003–04 553
30.5 Expenditure on Education in the Five-Year Plans 558
30.6 Quality Gap—Factors Associated with Quality 562
30.7 Vacant Positions of Teachers in 2007–08 563
31.1 Official Poverty Line in India (Rs Monthly PCTE) 575
31.2 State-wise Poverty Line (Rs Monthly PCTE) 576
31.3 Poverty Ratio in India (per cent) 576
31.4 Poverty Ratio in India (Total) 577
31.5 Number of Poor Persons in India (Total in Lakhs) 578
A01_PRAK8939_02_SE_FM.indd Page xvii 7/14/11 4:56 PM user-f462 /Volumes/207/PEAR525

List of Tables xvii

31.6 Poverty Ratio in India (Rural) 580

31.7 Number of Poor Persons in India (Rural in Lakhs) 581
31.8 Poverty Ratio in India (Urban) 582
31.9 Number of Poor Persons in India (Urban in Lakhs) 583
31.10 Poverty Ratio in India According to the Existing Poverty Line
and Revised Poverty Line 584
31.11 Poverty Lines and Poverty Ratio for 2004–05
(Expert Group, 2009) 585
33.1 Criteria and Relative Weights for Determining inter se Shares of States
Under Twelfth and Thirteenth Finance Commissions 612
33.2 Shares of States as per 12th FC and 13th FC Awards 613
33.3 Grants-in-Aid Made to States as per the Recommendations
of the 12th FC and 13th FC (Rupees in Crore) 614
34.1 Number of Panchayats and Elected Representatives in the Three
Levels of Panchayats, States and Union Territories in India as on
1 December 2006 619
34.2 States and Union Territories that Have Not Set Up District Planning
Committees 623
34.3 States and Union Territories that Have Constituted District Planning
Committees in Accordance with Article 243 of the Constitution 623
A01_PRAK8939_02_SE_FM.indd Page xviii 7/14/11 4:56 PM user-f462 /Volumes/207/PEAR525

Figures

4.1 Infant Mortality Rate for India, 1971–99 64

4.2 Birth and Death Rate for India, 1881–2001 66
4.3 Total Fertility Rate for India, 1971–98 68
4.4 India 2001 69
4.5 Uttar Pradesh 2001 70
4.6 Kerala 2001 70
4.7 Growth Rate of Three Major Religious Communities in India
(1901–2001) 72
8.1 Trends in Internal and External Sources of Funds
for the Private Corporate Sector 145
8.2 Trends in Equity Capital 147
8.3 Trends in Total Borrowings, Bank Borrowings and Borrowings
from Development Financial Institutions 147
8.4 New Capital Issues and Amount Raised by the Non-financial and
Non-governmental Companies 148
8.5 BSE Sensex (Annual Average of Share Price) 149
8.6 Cumulative FII Investment 150
8.7 Capital Mobilized through Private Placements
by the Corporate Sector 150
9.1 Composition of Gross Tax Revenues (1980s) 161
9.2 Centre’s Tax GDP Ratio 167
9.3 Pay, Allowance and Pension as Percentage of
Net Revenue Receipt and Total Expenditure 176
9.4a Fiscal Deficit and Debt/GDP Ratio—Centre and Combined 179
9.4b Interest Payment/GDP Ratio and Weighted Average Cost
of Borrowing 180
14.1 India’s Share in the World Merchandise Trade 243
14.2 Growth Rate of Exports and Imports 245
14.3 Export–Import Ratio and Trade Balance 248
14.4 Major Commodity Groups of Exports 248
14.5 Major Commodity Groups of Imports 250
14.6 Regional Distribution of India’s Trade 252
14.7 Regional Distribution of India’s Exports 253
14.8 Regional Distribution of India’s Imports 254
A01_PRAK8939_02_SE_FM.indd Page xix 7/14/11 4:56 PM user-f462 /Volumes/207/PEAR525

List of Figures xix

14.9 Growth Rate of Exports and Imports 255

19.1 Share of Agriculture in India (1951–2009) 325
19.2 Growth Rate of Agriculture (1951–2009) 325
19.3 Share of Agriculture and Allied Sectors in Total Gross Capital
Formation (per cent) at 1999–2000 Prices 328
19.4 Net Sown and Gross Cropped Area in India
(1960–61 to 2005–06) 331
19.5 Consumption of Fertilizers (NPK000 Tonnes) in India 1960–61 339
19.6 Consumption of Fertilizers (NPK000 Tonnes) in India 2007–08 339
21.1 India’s Foreign Trade in Rupee Crores (2000–08) 371
22.1 Flow of Institutional Credit for Agriculture and Allied Activities
1991–92 to 2008–09 (Rupees in Crore) 390
22.2 Investment in Agriculture—Share of Public and Private 392
25.1 Circle-wise Number of Internet Subscribes in India
(as on 31 December 2009) 439
25.2 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Telecom Sector in India 440
25.3 ICT Productions in India, 2003–04 to 2008–09 (Rupees in Crore) 441
25.4 Share of ICT Productions in India’s GDP 442
25.5 Share of ICT Export in India’s Total Export 442
25.6 India’s Foreign Exchange Reserve Since 1991 443
25.7 Percentage Share of Export to Total ICT Production in India 443
25.8 Region-wise Export of Indian ICT Industry During 2008–09 444
25.9 Villages in Each State with Direct Access to
Telecom Facilities in India 446
25.10 Personal Computers (PC) (in Million) and Use per 100 Population
in India 446
25.11 E-Readiness of Indian States 450
25.12 Regional Share of IT Production and Export, 2008–09 450
25.13 State-Wise Share of Export of ICT in 2008–09 (%) 451
27.1 Trends in POL and Total Cargo Traffic at Major Ports in India,
1971–72 to 2004–05 493
27.2 Trends in Export, Import and Transhipment Traffic During
1991–92 to 2004–05 495
27.3 Trends in Overseas and Coastal Cargo Handled at
all Major Ports, 1990–91 to 2004–05 496
29.1 GDP per-capita (in US $) and Life Expectancy (70 Countries) 532
29.2 Healthcare Spending and Life Expectancy 532
29.3 Per-capita Total and Government Health Spending in Some
Low-income Countries 536
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