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 MRI From Picture to Proton

MRI from Picture to Proton presents the basics of MR

practice and theory as the practitioner first meets them.
The subject is approached intuitively: starting from the
images, equipment and scanning protocols, rather than
pages of dry physics theory. The reader is brought face-
to-face with issues pertinent to practice immediately,
filling in the theoretical background as their scanning
experience grows. Key ideas are introduced in an intu-
itive manner which is faithful to the underlying physics
but avoids the need for difficult or distracting mathe-
matics. Additional explanations for the more techni-
cally inquisitive are given in optional secondary text
boxes. Informal in style, informed in content, written by
experienced teachers, MRI from Picture to Proton is an
essential text for the student of MR whatever their back-
ground: medical, technical or scientific.

Donald W. McRobbie is Head of Radiological and MR

Physics in the Radiological Sciences Unit, the
Hammersmith Hospitals NHS Trust and Senior Lecturer
in Imaging at Imperial College London.

Elizabeth A. Moore is MR Clinical Scientist for Philips

Medical Systems UK.

Martin J. Graves is Consultant Clinical Scientist in the

Department of Radiology at the University of
Cambridge Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust.

Martin R. Prince is Professor of Radiology at Columbia

College of Physicians and Surgeons and at Weill Medical
College of Cornell University as well as Chief of MRI at
New York Hospital.
MRI From Picture to Proton
Second edition

Donald W. McRobbie
Elizabeth A. Moore
Martin J. Graves and
Martin R. Prince
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521865272

© D. W. McRobbie, E. A. Moore, M. J. Graves and M. R. Graves 2003, 2006

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2006

ISBN-13 978-0-511-34944-7 eBook (NetLibrary)

ISBN-10 0-511-34944-0 eBook (NetLibrary)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-86527-2 hardback

ISBN-10 0-521-86527-1 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Every effort has been made in preparing this book to provide accurate and up-to-date
information that is in accord with accepted standards and practice at the time of
publication. Nevertheless, the authors, editors and publisher can make no warranties that
the information contained herein is totally free from error, not least because clinical
standards are constantly changing through research and regulation. The authors, editors
and publisher therefore disclaim all liability for direct or consequential damages resulting
from the use of material contained in this book. Readers are strongly advised to pay careful
attention to information provided by the manufacturer of any drugs or equipment that
they plan to use.
To Fiona, Laura and Andrew
DWMcR

To all the people who kept asking me when this

book would be written
EAM

To Philippa, Sophie, Katie and Chloe

MJG

To my brilliant colleagues, fellows, residents

and technologists who have taught me the art
of MRI
MRP
Contents

Acknowledgements xi

1 MR: What’s the attraction? 1

1.1 It’s not rocket science, but I like it 1
1.2 A brief history of medical imaging 2
1.3 How to use this book 4
Further reading 7

Part A The basic stuff

2 Early daze: your first week in MR 11

2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Welcome to the MR unit 11
2.3 Safety first 15
2.4 The patient’s journey 18
2.5 Basic clinical protocols 19
2.6 A week in the life of an MRI radiographer 27
Further reading 29

3 Seeing is believing: introduction to image

contrast 30
3.1 Introduction 30
3.2 Some basic stuff 31
3.3 T1-weighted images 32
3.4 T2-weighted images 33
3.5 PD-weighted images 35
3.6 GE T1-weighted images 36
3.7 GE T2*-weighted images 38
3.8 GE PD-weighted images 40
3.9 STIR images 40
3.10 FLAIR images 41
3.11 Contrast agents 42

vii
Contents

3.12 Angiographic images 44 7.4 Something to get excited about: the image
Further reading 46 slice 113
7.5 In-plane localization 117
4 The devil’s in the detail: pixels, matrices and 7.6 Consequences of Fourier imaging 129
slices 47 7.7 Speeding it up 133
4.1 Introduction 47 7.8 3D FT 135
4.2 Digital and analogue images 47 Further reading 136
4.3 Matrices, pixels and an introduction to
resolution 51 8 Getting in tune: resonance and
4.4 Slices and orientations 57 relaxation 137
4.5 Displaying images 57 8.1 Introduction 137
4.6 What do the pixels represent? 58 8.2 Spinning nuclei 137
4.7 From 2D to 3D 61 8.3 Measuring the magnetic moment 141
Further reading 64 8.4 Creating echoes 144
8.5 Relaxation times 148
5 What you set is what you get: basic image 8.6 Relaxation time mechanisms 153
optimization 65 8.7 Measuring relaxation times in vivo 161
5.1 Introduction 65 8.8 Contrast agent theory 162
5.2 Looking on the bright side: what are we Further reading 166
trying to optimize? 65
5.3 Trading places: resolution, SNR and scan 9 Let’s talk technical: MR equipment 167
time 69 9.1 Introduction 167
5.4 Ever the optimist: practical steps to 9.2 Magnets 167
optimization 74 9.3 Gradients 173
Further reading 78 9.4 RF system 175
9.5 Computer systems 188
6 Improving your image: how to avoid 9.6 Open MRI systems 188
artefacts 79 9.7 Siting and installation 189
6.1 Introduction 79 Further reading 191
6.2 Keep still please: gross patient motion 79
6.3 Physiological motion 80 10 But is it safe? Bio-effects 192
6.4 Motion artefacts from flow 86 10.1 Introduction 192
6.5 Lose the fat! 89 10.2 RF effects 192
6.6 Partial volume artefact and 10.3 Gradient effects 194
cross-talk 96 10.4 Static field effects 197
6.7 Phase sampling artefacts 98 Further reading 200
6.8 Susceptibility and metal artefacts 101
6.9 Equipment artefacts 103
6.10 What’s causing this artefact? 107 Part B The specialist stuff
Further reading 107
11 Ghosts in the machine: quality control 203
7 Spaced out: spatial encoding 108 11.1 Introduction 203
7.1 Introduction 108 11.2 The quality cycle 204
7.2 Anatomy of a pulse sequence 108 11.3 Signal parameters 204
7.3 From Larmor to Fourier via gradients 109 11.4 Geometric parameters 211

viii
 Contents

11.5 Relaxation parameters 216 15.7 Other nuclei 321

11.6 Artefacts 217 15.8 Hyperpolarized gases 322
11.7 Spectroscopic QA 218 Further reading 324
Further reading 219
16 To BOLDly go: new frontiers 325
12 Acronyms anonymous: a guide to the 16.1 Introduction 325
pulse sequence jungle 220 16.2 EPI acquisition methods 325
12.1 Introduction 220 16.3 Diffusion imaging 329
12.2 Getting above the trees: a sequences 16.4 Perfusion imaging 335
overview 220 16.5 Brain activation mapping using 341 the
12.3 RARING to go: SE-based techniques 222 BOLD effect 340
12.4 Spoiled for choice: GE 235 Further reading 345
12.5 Ultra-fast GE imaging 248
12.6 Pulse sequence conversion chart 255 17 The parallel universe: parallel imaging and
Further reading 257 novel acquisition techniques 346
17.1 Introduction 346
13 Go with the flow: MR angiography 258 17.2 Groundwork 346
13.1 Introduction 258 17.3 Making SENSE: parallel imaging in image
13.2 Effect of flow in conventional imaging space 348
techniques 258 17.4 SMASH hits: parallel imaging
13.3 TOF MRA 263 in k-space 351
13.4 PC angiography 265 17.5 k-t BLAST 357
13.5 CE MRA 271 17.6 Clinical benefits of parallel imaging 359
13.6 Novel contrast agents 279 17.7 Image quality in parallel imaging 360
Further reading 281 17.8 Non-Cartesian acquisition schemes 364
17.9 Epilogue: the final frontier 371
14 A heart to heart discussion: cardiac MRI 282 Further reading 373
14.1 Introduction 282
14.2 Artefact challenges 282 Appendix: maths revision 375
14.3 Morphological imaging 285 A.1 Vectors 375
14.4 Functional imaging 288 A.2 Sine and cosine waves 376
14.5 Cine phase-contrast velocity mapping 298 A.3 Exponentials 377
14.6 Myocardial perfusion imaging 300 A.4 Complex numbers 377
14.7 Myocardial viability 303 A.5 Simple Fourier analysis 378
14.8 Coronary artery imaging 304 A.6 Some useful constants 379
Further reading 305
Index 381
15 It’s not just squiggles: in vivo Colour plates between pages 324 and 325.
spectroscopy 306
15.1 Introduction 306
15.2 Some basic chemistry 307
15.3 Single-voxel spectroscopy 310
15.4 Processing of single-voxel spectra 316
15.5 Chemical shift imaging 318
31
15.6 P spectroscopy 319

ix
Acknowledgements

We thank the following for assistance in providing

images for this book (in alphabetical order): Mitchell
Albert, Caroline Andrews, Janet De Wilde, Jo Hajnal,
Andrew Heath, Franklyn Howe, Derek Jones, Steve
Keevil, Debiao Li, David MacManus, Erin McKinstry,
James F. M. Meaney, Annie Papadaki, Simon Pittard,
Rebecca Quest, Erica Scurr, Annette Schmidt, Stefan
Schoenberg, Julie Shepherd, Catriona Todd, Dennis
Walkingshaw, Barry Whitnall, Ian Young, and Honglei
Zhang.
The permission of the Department of Radiology,
University of Cambridge and Addenbrooke’s NHS Trust
to reproduce certain figures and images is gratefully
acknowledged.
Other images were kindly provided by the
Hammersmith Hospitals NHS Trust and Chelsea and
Westminster Hospital London, and by the Lysholm
Department of Radiology, National Hospital for
Neurology & Neurosurgery, London.
We also thank Erin McKinstry of the Department of
Radiology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard
Medical School, Boston, MA, for helpful comments on
hyperpolarized gas imaging and Jeff Hayden of the
American College of Radiology for guidance regarding
the ACR Accreditation Program.
Our mystery radiographer is thanked for providing
access to her diary.
Figures and material relating to the ACR Accredit-
ation Program are reprinted with permission of the
American College of Radiology, Reston, VA. No other
representation of this material is authorized without
express, written permission from the American College
of Radiology.

xi
Acknowledgements

The subject matter of this book may be covered by We would like to thank Sarah Price for invaluable
one or more patents. This book and the information editorial fine tuning and the team at Cambridge
contained therein and conveyed thereby should not be University Press, especially Peter Silver, Lucille Murby
construed as either explicitly or implicitly granting any and Jane Williams. Thanks also to Greg Brown for sug-
license; and no liability for patent infringement arising gesting the title.
out of the use of the information is assumed.

xii
 1

MR: What’s the attraction?

1.1 It’s not rocket science, but I like it stands for nuclear magnetic resonance). The cynics
may say that the technique really took off clinically
How would you impress a stranger you meet at a party when the ‘N-word’ was dropped. This was sensible as
with your intelligence? You might claim to be a brain the term ‘nuclear’, although scientifically accurate,
surgeon or a rocket scientist. Well Magnetic Resonance implied a connection with nuclear energy and, in the
(MR) is not rocket science, it’s better. MR involves an last of the cold war years, resonated in the public’s mind
amazing combination of advanced science and engi- with the spectre of nuclear weapons.
neering, including the use of superconductivity, cryo- Because of the diversity of sciences and technologies
genics, quantum physics, digital and computer that gave birth to and continue to nurture MR, it is an
technology – and all within the radiology department of extremely hard subject to learn. A lifetime is not enough
your local hospital. MR imaging has evolved from to become expert in every aspect. Clinicians, technolo-
unpromising beginnings in the 1970s to become nowa- gists and scientists all struggle with the study of the
days the imaging method of choice for a large propor-
tion of radiological examinations and the ‘jewel in the
crown’ of medical technology. A modern MRI scanner is
shown in figure 1.1.
So what is it? It is an imaging method based princi-
pally upon sensitivity to the presence and properties of
water, which makes up 70% to 90% of most tissues. The
properties and amount of water in tissue can alter dra-
matically with disease and injury which makes MR very
sensitive as a diagnostic technique. MR detects subtle
changes in the magnetism of the nucleus, the tiny entity
that lies at the heart of the atom. This is probing deeper
than X-rays, which interact with the clouds or shells of
the electrons that orbit the nucleus. MR is a truly pow-
erful modality. At its most advanced, MR can be used
not just to image anatomy and pathology but to inves-
tigate organ function, to probe in vivo chemistry and
even to visualize the brain thinking.
In the early days, the scanners were the domain of the
physicists and engineers who invented and built them, Figure 1.1 Modern superconducting MR system. Courtesy of
and the technique was called NMR imaging (NMR Philips Medical Systems.

1
MR: What’s the attraction?

subject. The result is sometimes an obscurity of under- is unique and makes it a powerful research tool in the
standing or a dilution of scientific truth resulting in mis- aetiology of disease and the effects of drugs.
conceptions. This is why we have chosen to write this Ultrasound was developed in the 1950s following the
book. Our aim is to introduce you to MR as a tool – development of SONAR in World War II and was unique
rather like learning to drive a car. Once you are in involving no ionizing radiation and offering the pos-
confident on the road, we can then start to learn how sibility of safe, noninvasive imaging. Its ability to image
the engine works. in real time and its sensitivity to flow, through the
Doppler effect, have been key factors in its widespread
role in obstetrics, cardiology, abdominal and vascular
1.2 A brief history of medical imaging disease, real-time biopsy guidance and minimally inva-
sive surgery.
Radiology began after the accidental discovery of ‘X- As early as 1959, J. R. Singer at the University of
rays’ by Roentgen in 1895. At about the same time California, Berkeley, proposed that NMR could be used
(1896) Becquerel and the Curies were discovering as a noninvasive tool to measure in vivo blood flow. In
radioactivity and radium and making possible the 1971 Raymond Damadian discovered that certain
future development of nuclear medicine. Within a mouse tumours displayed elevated relaxation times
couple of years most of the basic techniques of radiog- compared with normal tissues in vitro. This opened the
raphy were established, e.g. the use of fluorescent door for a complete new way of imaging the human
screens (Pupin 1896), contrast media (Lindenthal body where the potential contrast between tissues and
1896), even the principle of angiography. Early disease was many times greater than that offered by X-
fluoroscopy entailed direct viewing from a fluorescent ray technology and ultrasound (figure 1.2). At the same
plate, i.e. putting your head in the main beam, a prac- time developments in cryogenics, or the study of very
tice frowned upon today! Unfortunately radiation pro- low temperatures, made the development of whole-
tection followed slightly too late for the pioneers of body superconducting magnets possible. Damadian
radiology. The next real technical breakthrough was the and his colleagues at the State University of New York,
development of the image intensifier in the 1950s, but starved of mainstream research funding, went so far as
the basis of conventional radiography remained the to design and build their own superconducting magnet
same until the recent IT and digital revolutions. operating in their Brooklyn laboratory and the first
Computed Tomography (CT) was a huge breakthrough human body image by NMR is attributed to them. There
earning Hounsfield and Cormack the Nobel Prize for is some dispute about who actually is the founder of
medicine and physiology in 1979. X-ray CT was unique modern Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), but one
in producing tomographic images or slices of the living thing is certain, Damadian coined the first MR
human body for the first time and with a higher contrast acronym, namely FONAR (Field fOcussed Nuclear
than achievable by conventional planar techniques. mAgnetic Resonance). This set a trend, and you can see
The combination of a moving X-ray gantry and the the development of the acronym family tree in
computing power necessary to reconstruct from pro- chapter 12!
jections made CT possible. In 1973, in an article in Nature, Paul Lauterbur pro-
In nuclear medicine a similar evolution was occur- posed using magnetic field gradients to distinguish
ring, from the development of the gamma camera by between NMR signals originating from different loca-
Anger in 1958 to tomographic imaging in the form of tions combining this with a form of reconstruction from
Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography projections (as used in CT). The use of gradients still
(SPECT) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET) forms the basis of all modern MRI as recognised by the
which is ongoing today. PET’s clinical use is increasing, Nobel Committee in 2003. This is the basis of all modern
particularly in detecting metastases in oncology. Its MRI. Unfortunately Lauterbur’s brilliant invention was
ability to image minute concentrations of metabolites not accompanied by a brilliant acronym; he coined the

2
 1.2 A brief history of medical imaging

Figure 1.2 Raymond Damadian’s “Apparatus and method for detecting cancer in tissue”. US patent 3789832 filed 17 March
1972, issued 5 February 1974. Image from the US Patent and Trademark Office.

obscure term ‘zeugmatography’, meaning imaging from (see Further reading). And what of the commercial
a joining together (of the main field and the gradients). In development? EMI, the creators of X-ray CT through Sir
contemporary MR terms Lauterbur can be said to have Godfrey Hounsfield, were involved from very early on.
invented frequency encoding. Whilst the term ‘zeug- Clow and Young produced the first published human
matography’ sunk without trace, fortunately the tech- head image in 1978 (figure 1.3). EMI sold their research
nique it described has gone from strength to strength. interest to Picker International, which became Marconi
Selective excitation, or the sensitization of tomo- and is now part of Philips. The ‘Neptune’ 0.15T super-
graphic image slices, was invented at the University of conducting system installed at the Hammersmith
Nottingham, England in 1974 by Sir Peter Mansfield’s Hospital, London, was the first commercial clinical
group, a contribution also recognised by the 2003 Nobel system. Elsewhere in Europe, Philips Medical Systems
Committee, whilst in 1975 Richard Ernst’s group in also dedicated substantial early investment (figure 1.4).
Zurich invented two-dimensional Fourier transform General Electric introduced high field (1.5T) systems in
imaging (2D FT). The first practical 2D FT imaging around 1984. The technique developed rapidly through
method, dubbed ‘spin warp’, was developed by the late 1980s to become the method of choice for non-
Edelstein and Hutchison at the University of Aberdeen, trauma neurological scanning. By 1996 there were in
Scotland in 1980. Many other researchers contributed excess of 10 000 scanners worldwide.
to the early development of MR, and in this short Due to problems of low signal and high sensitivity to
introduction it is impossible to do justice to them all motion, body MR did not really take off until the 1990s.

3
MR: What’s the attraction?

The early history of NMR

‘Nuclear induction’, as it was first described, was dis-
covered in 1945, soon after the close of World War II,
by Bloch and independently by Purcell and Pound. It
is said that the development of radio communica-
tions in the war effort, to which Purcell had con-
tributed scientifically, was one of the factors
underpinning this important scientific discovery.
Another important factor, as in the development of
atomic physics, was the expulsion or fleeing of
European physicists from the Nazi regime, an exodus
that included Bloch and Bloembergen. What did
these MR pioneers discover? That you can detect a
signal (a voltage in a coil) when you place a sample in
a magnetic field and irradiate it with radiofrequency
(RF) energy of a certain frequency, the resonant or
Larmor frequency. The signal is produced by the
interaction of the sample nuclei with the magnetic
field. The spin echo was ‘stumbled upon’ by Hahn in
Figure 1.3 First ever human head image using MRI at 0.1 T 1949. He discovered that you could get a repeat of the
from EMI Central Research Laboratories. For this image CT NMR signal at a delayed time by adding a second
type “back projection” was used. Courtesy of Ian Young. burst of RF energy. That’s all you need to know for
now. So what were NMR researchers doing between
the forties and the seventies – that’s a long time in
cultural and scientific terms. The answer: they were
doing chemistry, including Lauterbur, a professor of
chemistry at the same institution as Damadian,
albeit on different campuses. NMR developed into a
laboratory spectroscopic technique capable of
examining the molecular structure of compounds,
until Damadian’s ground-breaking discovery in 1971.

one of the most cutting edge methods, was actually one

of the first imaging methods to be proposed, by Sir Peter
Mansfield. EPI is now extensively used in neurological
imaging through functional MRI (fMRI) and diffusion
Figure 1.4 0.15T resistive magnet used by Philips in the
imaging.
early development of MRI. Courtesy of Philips Medical
Systems.

The key factors were the development of fast imaging 1.3 How to use this book
techniques, particularly gradient echo, and phased
array coil technology. The 1990s also saw the coming of Everyone starts MRI with the same basic problem: it’s
age of earlier developments, namely cardiac MRI and like nothing else they’ve learnt in the past. All that
Echo Planar Imaging (EPI). EPI, which is the fastest and knowledge you have about radioactive isotopes and

4
 1.3 How to use this book

The spin doctors: Nobel Laureates’ roll-call (figure 1.5)

In 1952 Edward Purcell (Harvard) and Felix Bloch (Stanford) jointly received the Nobel Prize for physics ‘for their
development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection there-
with’. Of Purcell’s discovery, the Boston Herald reported that ‘it wouldn’t revolutionize industry or help the house-
wife’. Purcell himself stated that ‘we are dealing not merely with a new tool but a new subject which I have simply
called nuclear magnetism. If you will think of the history of ordinary magnetism, the electronic kind, you will
remember that it has been rich in difficult and provocative problems and full of surprises.’ It seems that the Boston
Herald misjudged the importance of NMR!
Bloch, a Swiss-born Jew and friend of quantum physicist Werner Heisenberg, quit his post in Leipzig in 1933 in
disgust at the Nazi’s expulsion of German Jews (as a Swiss citizen, Bloch himself was exempt). Bloch’s subsequent
career at Stanford was crammed with major contributions to physics and he has been called ‘the father of solid state
physics’.
Nicolaas Bloembergen, a Dutch citizen, was forced to hide from the Nazis for the duration of the War, reputedly
living on boiled tulip bulbs, until becoming Purcell’s first graduate student at Harvard two months after the dis-
covery of NMR. With Purcell and Robert Pound he developed the theory of NMR relaxation, known now by their
initials BPP. In 1981 he won a Nobel Prize for his work in laser spectroscopy. In 1991 Richard Ernst joined the MRI
Nobel Laureates ‘for his contributions to the development of the methodology of high resolution nuclear magnetic
resonance spectroscopy’. You could say Richard Ernst achieved the same trick twice: by his novel applications of
2D FT in both spectroscopy and imaging.
The 2003 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Professor Paul Lauterbur and Sir Peter
Mansfield for ‘for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging’. Peter Mansfield left school at 15 with
no qualifications, aiming to become a printer. His scientific curiosity was sparked by the V1 and V2 flying bombs
and rockets that fell on London in 1944, when he was 11. After working as a scientific assistant at the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory and a spell in the army, he went back to college to complete his education, eventually becoming
Professor of Physics at the University of Nottingham. He was knighted in 1993.
Paul Lauterbur is said to have been inspired to use field gradients to produce an image whilst eating a hamburger.
His seminal paper ‘Image Formation by Induced Local Interactions. Examples Employing Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance’ (Nature 242, March 16, 1973) was originally rejected. 30 years later, Nature placed this work in a book
of the 21 most influential scientific papers of the 20th century.
Other Nobel Laureates associated with NMR include Norman Ramsey (1989), a spectroscopy pioneer who devel-
oped the theory of the chemical shift, Isidor Rabi (1944), Ramsey’s PhD mentor, ‘for his resonance method for
recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei’ and Kurt Wüthrich (2002) for his development of NMR spec-
troscopy for determination of the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules in solution.

film-screen combinations is useless to you now. Where The book is divided into two parts. In part A you will
do you start? Most MRI books start at the beginning (a find everything you need to know about the basics of
very good place to start, according to the song), and MRI, but presented in reverse order. We start with things
introduce protons, net magnetization, precession and you can touch and look at: the equipment you find in an
the Larmor equation all in the first three pages. We think MR unit and what the images look like, using terms like
there is another way, starting at the end with the images ‘T1-weighted’ simply as labels. Later on we talk about
that are produced, which is much more useful if you’re how the images are produced and finally we cover the
already working in the MR unit. After all, you don’t underlying physics. By that stage you will be able to link
expect to understand how the internal combustion these rather difficult concepts back to things which
engine works before you learn to drive. matter – the images.

5
MR: What’s the attraction?

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 1.5 Nobel prize-winners in NMR: (a) Purcell 1912–1997, (b) Bloch 1901–1999, (c) Bloembergen b. 1920, (d) Ernst b.
1933, (e) Lauterbur b. 1929 and (f) Mansfield b. 1933. Courtesy of the Nobel Museum.

6
 Further reading

Part B contains more advanced topics, such as good impression in your new job, a radiologist trying to
cardiac MR and spectroscopy, in no particular order. get the best images for making diagnoses or a physicist
You don’t have to work right through part A before you studying for a postgraduate degree.
read these chapters, we just couldn’t fit them neatly into
the reverse order!
In all the chapters you will find the most basic infor- F U RT H E R R E A D I N G
mation in the main text. Advanced boxes, shaded in Christie DA and Tansey EM (eds) (1996) Making the Human
blue, deal with various topics in more detail and are Body Transparent: The Impact of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
placed at appropriate places through the text. If you’re and Magnetic Resonance Imaging. London: Wellcome
completely new to MR, we suggest you read straight Institute for the History of Medicine. Available from:
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/images/witness_vol2_pdf_1
through skipping all the advanced boxes. When you
905.pdf [accessed 24th October 2001]
need to understand something a bit better, re-read the
Mattson J and Simon M (1996) The Pioneers of NMR and
chapter this time taking in the blue boxes. The topics
Magnetic Resonance in Medicine: The Story of MRI. Jericho,
can seem to jump around a bit by splitting them up this NY: Dean Books Co (ISBN: 0961924314)
way, but we think it is a good compromise, which allows Thomas AM, Isherwood I and Wells PNT (eds) (1995) Invisible
us to include enough information for everyone, Light: 100 Years of Medical Radiology. Oxford: Blackwell
whether you are a new radiographer hoping to make a Science (ISBN: 0865426279)

7
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