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The Search for Life on Other Planets
Bruce Jakosky
 The search for Life on other Planets

Sausalito Public library

420
I |

Litho St.
Sausalito, CA 94965
3 1 1 01777 7622
(415) 289-4121

Does life exist on other planets? This topical book presents the
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 The Search for Life on Other Planets
Bruce Jakosky

JJ'm^^K

Cambridge
UNIVERSITY PRESS

Sausalito Public Library

Sausalito, California 94965

IM
PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1RP, United Kingdom

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk
40West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA http://www/cup.org
10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia

© Cambridge University Press 1998

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 1998

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typeset in Utopia 9/ 13pt, in QuarkXPress™ |se)

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

library of Congress cataloguing in publication data

Jakosky, Bruce M.
The search for life on other planets / by Bruce Jakosky.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 521 59165 1 .

- ISBN 521 59837 (pbk.)

1. Life on other planets. I. Title.

QB54.I25 1998
576.8'39-dc21 97-51549 CIP

ISBN 0521 59165 1 hardback

ISBN 521 59837 paperback
 Contents

Preface [vii]

1 The search for life in the universe [1]

2 Impacts, extinctions, and the earliest history of life on Earth [16]

3 The history of the Earth [35]

4 The Earth's geological record and the earliest life [54]

5 Energy and life in unique environments on Earth [72]

6 Origin of life on Earth [93]

7 Requirements for extraterrestrial life [110]

8 Is life on Mars possible? [119]

9 Possible fossil martian life in meteorites from Mars [142]

10 Implanting life on Mars [160]

11 The exobiology of Venus [172]

12 Titan -a natural exobiology laboratory? [192]

13 Exobiology in the Jupiter system [208]

14 Formation of planets around other stars [228]

15 Searching for planets around other stars [244]

16 The habitability of planets around other stars [260]

17 Intelligent life in the universe [276]

18 Life in the universe [293]

Additional readingand bibliography [310]

Figure references [322]

Index [324]
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2012

http://archive.org/details/searchforlifeonoOOjako
Preface

The possibility that there might be life on other planets has become a
major topic of public debate since 1995. The two specific incidents that
triggered the discussions were the discoveries of planets around other
stars and of possible fossil evidence in meteorites that have come from
Mars for life there. Neither of these discoveries, however, provides com-
pelling evidence for the existence of extraterrestrial life, and it is unlikely
that the existence of life elsewhere will be confirmed before the end of the
century. Despite these uncertainties many if not most, scientists believe
that it is very likely that life exists.

The sudden emergence of the topic of life on other planets as a major

issue in our society really is more a matter of public awareness rather than
of scientific advance or discovery. The issues related to life on other planets
- the origin and early evolution of life on Earth, the environmental condi-
tions required for the existence of life, the occurrence of these conditions
on other planets in our solar system, the formation of planets and their

possible existence around other stars, and the nature of intelligent life -

have been of considerable scientific interest for a long time, and consider-
able efforts have been ongoing in each of these areas for decades. Within
the last decade, especially, new advances in planetary science and in ter-

restrial biology have pointed toward the possibility of extraterrestrial life.

It is only with the recent discoveries, though, that the issue has bubbled up
again into the realm of public awareness.
Within the mainstream planetary science community, many of the
issues related to life in the universe have, in turn, been shunned and
embraced. In the years following the Viking spacecraft mission to Mars in

1976 to look for life, very few planetary scientists were working on ques-
tions pertaining to life on other planets and there was very little crossover
between planetary science and exobiology or origin-of-life research. Since
the mid-1990s, however, there has been much more crossover, and the bio-
logical questions have come to the forefront again. Although cynics will

argue that this is merely a play for more funding and public attention,

rather it appears to be due largely to the strength of the intellectual argu-

ments that point to the possibility that life could exist elsewhere. These
issues center on the ease with which life arose on Earth, the likely occur-
rence of the environmental conditions necessary for an origin of life else-

where in our solar system, and the likely existence of planets orbiting other

stars that also share these conditions.

Certainly, my own views have followed this evolution. When becameI

involved in planetary science research during the Viking era, it quickly

became me that the path to respectability lay in not pursuing exo-
clear to

biological issues. When began teaching a decade later, my undergraduate

I
Preface

course in controversial issues in planetary science focused exclusively on

the geological questions. The strong connection between planetary
science and biology, though, became clear with the discovery that an aster-
oid impact must have played a major role in the extinction of the dinosaurs
(and other species) some 65 million years ago. Teaching introductory
geology to first-year students helped underscore to me that the connec-

tions on Earth between the geological and the biological events of the last 4
billion years were strong. Over time, the question of life on other planets
pushed its way more and more into my planetary course until, this year, it

was taught under the name "Extraterrestrial life".

This book grew out of the background that was necessary in order to
teach the material, combined with the lack of a suitable text. My goal in

writing this book is to provide an introduction to the questions of life on

other planets at a level suitable for the educated public or for an under-
graduate college course for non-majors. This book also should be suitable
as an introduction to the major questions and an entry into the literature
for graduate students, since most graduate students will not be well versed
in all of the areas touched on here.
Although the question of life in the universe could be approached from
the perspective of chemistry, biology, geology, or astrophysics, I've taken a
"planetary" approach to it. This involves looking at the nature of the inter-
actions between chemistry and biology and the evolution of planets as a
whole. This approach should be complementary to those taken elsewhere
and, especially, with the vast literature at all levels on the origin of life on
Earth.

The book divides naturally up into several topics - the origin and early
evolution of life on Earth; environmental conditions necessary for life; the
possibility of life on other planets in the solar system; the occurrence of
planets around other stars, their habitability, and the possibility of life
there; and the nature of intelligent life and the philosophical implications
of finding life. Some of these topics are treated in much more depth than
others, consistent with our current level of understanding and with the
"planetary" approach taken here.
I have not tried to reference each idea back to its original source or to
use embedded references. The range of topics is so broad that, if I did, the
reference list would comprise several thousand references. Rather, I've

provided a representative list of references for each chapter. Some will

provide introductory information for someone not familiar with the field
at all, while others include some of the most important papers at the most
detailed level of understanding.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank those who have helped me
 Preface

to understand some of the issues raised here, sometimes explaining them

to me quite patiently. In particular, very much appreciate discussions
I

with Tom Ayres, Sue Barnes, Mike Carr, Phil Christensen, Bill Cochran,
David Des Marais, Jack Farmer, David Grinspoon, Kevin Hutchins, Chuck
Klein, Paul Lucey, Jane Luu, Geoff Marcy, Hap McSween, Mike Meyer, Mark
Miesch, Ken Nealson, Norman Pace, Cora Randall, Nick Schneider, Everett
Shock, Bill Schopf, Steve Squyres, Glen Stewart, and Richard Zurek. I am
grateful for comments on early versions of individual chapters or of the
entire text to Mark Bullock, Mike Carr, Frank Crary, Kevin Hutchins, Jim

Kasting, Geoff Marcy, Chris McKay, Ken Nealson, Frank Palluconi, Nick
Schneider, and Len Tyler. Of course, any remaining misunderstandings,
inconsistencies, or mistakes are my own. also would like to thank Adam
I

Black, my editor at Cambridge, for his valuable support and suggestions at

all stages of writing this manuscript, and David Underwood in the

Graphics Department at CU for his assistance in putting together the

images and figures. In addition, I thank Heather Weisacosky for her valu-

able assistance at all stages of writing the manuscript, including tracking

down references and papers in the literature, helping with figures, and
reading and editing the entire text.

Last, but certainly not least, I am grateful to Jane Karyl for her support
and encouragement during the entire writing process.
Bruce Jakosky
The search for life in the universe

The possible existence of life elsewhere in our solar system or in the uni-
verse is one of the most profound issues that we can contemplate.
Whatever the answer turns out to be - whether life is present elsewhere or
absent - our view of the world and our place within it will be dramatically
affected. If a single example of even the most rudimentary life form can be
found on another world, that will tell us that the origin of life is not unique
to the Earth. We will not be able to help but wonder if intelligent life exists
that is more advanced or more sophisticated than us. We will wonder
whether the paths that we have chosen as a society are the most beneficial
paths. Indeed, it would be a very humbling experience to realize that we
are not alone in our existence. On the other hand, if no evidence is found
suggesting other life, we may view the Earth and all its inhabitants with a
narrow, pinhole focus that makes us unique, on an isolated plane within a
vast universe. This view is well expressed in the thought, attributed vari-
ously to either the philosopher Bertrand Russell or the science-fiction
writer Isaac Asimov, 'There are two possibilities. Maybe we're alone. Maybe
we're not. Both are equally frightening.'.
Ours is the first generation that can begin to address in a thorough
manner the scientific details of the origin of life on the Earth and the
possibilities of the existence of life elsewhere in the universe. Although we
do not understand the specific details of the origin of life on Earth, we have
learned a great deal about the conditions that surrounded the earliest life.
In addition, we have just begun to explore the rest of our solar system and
to look for planets outside of it. Most of the planets in our solar system have

been visited with spacecraft, and humans have walked on the surface of

the Moon. Many details regarding the climate and habitability of the other
planets are now understood, and the search for evidence of other life can
begin. The Viking spacecraft was used to look for life on Mars in the late
1970s - none was found - but we now know that Viking might have been
searching in the wrong place or with the wrong instruments.
The discovery in 1995 and 1996 of planets orbiting around other stars

lends immediacy to the question of life in other solar systems. Although

these planets were expected to exist, such expectations were built on theory
rather than observation. Their actual detection is a discovery of paramount

importance. Even though the new planets are for the most part more
Jupiter-like than Earth-like, we can use their existence to begin constrain
ing theories that apply to all planets. Certainly, Earth-like planets - planets

with a solid surface, an atmosphere, and the possibility of liquid water on

the surface -are expected to exist around othei stars, bul oiu telescopesare
not yet able to detect them. Knowing that there are lupitei like planets.

however, gives us impetus to search For Earth-like planel (Figure L.l).

The search for life in the universe

[Figure 1.1]

Satellite image of the whole

Earth. Africa can be seen in

the middle of the picture, and

Saudi Arabia in the upper
right. (NASA Photo.)

Recent advances in our understanding of terrestrial biochemistry also

fuel the search for extraterrestrial life. They demonstrate that life can exist
within a much wider range of environmental conditions and can utilize a

much wider variety of sources of energy than was previously thought

(Figure 1.2). They also suggest that there are many distinct ecological
niches on the Earth that could have served as the location for the origin of
life. Although we do not know for certain where life on Earth originated, we
can appreciate that other planets might have life that began in any of
several places. If life is as flexible as it appears to be based on our experi-
ence on Earth, then it is possible that a wide variety of planets, both within
and outside our own solar system, might have originated life and be har-
boring it at the present. As much as the advances in astronomy and plane-
tary science have opened up our view of the solar system and the universe,
the advances in biology have opened up the possibility of abundant life in
the universe.
The goal of this book is to present a broad-based view of the scientific

underpinnings of the search for extraterrestrial life. And, we know more

today than we have at any time in the past about what qualities a planet
must possess in order to potentially contain life. We should recognize up
front that there is no unambiguous evidence today that suggests the exis-

tence of any life in the universe other than on our own planet. This does not
mean that there is no life, only that we have just begun the search. Our
tools for scientific exploration are just reaching the point where we can
 The search for life in the universe

Figure 1.2]

Photograph of tube worms

located near a hydrothermal
begin to address these questions meaningfully. The lack of evidence for life
vent at an oceanic spreading
center. They are typically up to should be perceived as an absence of information rather than an absence
two feet long and get their
of life or an indication that life might be unlikely to exist elsewhere.
energy, ultimately, from
geochemical energy contained
The field of exobiology (or bioastronomy) - which deals with the studj
in the mineral-rich hot water. of extraterrestrial life - should be viewed in the broadest sense. Exobiology
(Photo courtesy of Childress.)
J.

does not refer only to the study of biological activity on other planets
(especially since we know of none today)- It also refers to the occurrence oi

nonbiological and prebiological chemical processes, the distribution ol

planets within the universe, and the habitability of all planets. As such, u

lies at the intersection of the traditional fields of geology, astronomy, plan

The search for life in the universe

etary science, chemistry, and biology. Exobiology is an interdisciplinary

field, touching on all aspects of science. And, because of the implications
of the results of the search for extraterrestrial life, it also touches on issues
that usually are the concerns of philosophy, theology, and other areas that
normally are not considered to be a part of natural science.
The idea that life might exist on other worlds is not new to our genera-
tion, of course. As far back as the time of the ancient Greeks, several thou-
sand years ago, the possibility of the existence of other worlds created
substantial debate. Strong arguments were advanced on both sides. In

favor, it was felt that the Earth and life on Earth were simply the agglomera-
number of smaller elements, and that these elements could
tion of a large
come together elsewhere just as easily. Against, the Earth was felt to be at a
special place in the universe - the center - and terrestrial life must be
unique. Copernicus was able to argue more than ten centuries later, in the
sixteenth century, that the Earth was not the center of the universe. With
the recognition that the stars were objects similar to our own Sun, it was
felt by many that planets must be located around them - otherwise the
stars' existence would be wasted. As recently as the beginning of this
century, the presence of advanced life on Mars was generally accepted by
the public. Orson Welles' radio broadcast of The War of the Worlds in 1936

highlighted this belief and fueled the idea of alien invasion that now has
become so popular.
Today, the views on other life in the universe are incredibly diverse. At
one end of the spectrum are those who believe that the universe is widely
populated by intelligent beings, that the Earth is regularly visited by aliens
from outer space, that aliens show themselves to the world in the form of
UFOs but have not formally announced their existence, and that humans
and other animals are routinely being abducted by aliens for experimental
study. At the opposite end, some argue that the Earth is absolutely unique
in having life, and that there can be no other occurrence of life anywhere
else in the universe. In between, a large fraction of the people - including
many, but certainly not all, scientists - believe that life on Earth is a
natural consequence of physical and chemical processes, and that life

might have arisen independently any number of times throughout the

universe.
If there is life on other worlds, the consensus among scientists is that
the most likely form to be encountered would be analogous to terrestrial

bacteria. On the Earth, bacteria-like, single-celled organisms formed very

quickly after the Earth's formation, and they dominated the biosphere
literally for billions of years. In fact, it wasn't until about two billion years
after the formation of life on Earth, some 2.5 billion years ago, that any
 The search for life in the universe

IFigure 1.3]

Hubble Space Telescope image of

Mars. The various bright and dark
regions are visible, and the north
polar ice cap is at the top. (NASA
photo courtesy of S. Lee and P.

James.)

entities larger than the simplest single cells left their mark; and, it wasn't
until about 600 million years ago - after about 6/7 of the Earth's history to
date had passed - that substantially more-complex life forms began to

appear. In many ways, bacteria still can be considered the most wide-
spread form of life on the Earth. Much of the discussion in this book will

focus on the ability of the simplest life to occur and to exist. It is not likely
that we will encounter intelligent or advanced beings in our search of the
universe, given the low probability of intelligence arising elsewhere.
However, this does not negate the importance of finding other life: from
the philosophical perspective, finding life of any sort is just as important as
finding intelligent life. It would demonstrate that life was widespread
within the universe rather than concentrated only on a single world.
The most likely place within our own solar system for finding other life

is the planet Mars (Figure 1.3). Although Mars is relatively cold and dry on
its surface today, it certainly was not so in the past . The geological evidence
that we see shows that liquid water has been present on Mars throughout
much of its history. Liquid water is the single environmental requirement

thought to be essential for life. With abundant water being present.

environmental conditions on early Mais may havi been similar to the
The search for life in the universe

conditions on the Earth at the same time. This was a time when life was
forming on the Earth, and life may have been forming on Mars inde-
pendently from the Earth. In addition, it is possible that terrestrial life

might have been exported to Mars in its early history, by the impact of an
asteroid onto the Earth's surface and by the ejection of rocks containing
bacteria into space. Even if Mars does not harbor life today, it still is an
important target in the search for extraterrestrial life. If there is no life on
Mars, and no evidence for a past existence of life, it would then be impor-
tant to understand what caused the Earth and Mars to differ so dramat-
ically in their outcomes.
There are other possible abodes of life in our solar system, however. It is

possible to imagine that life might exist on Europa or Io, both of which are
satellites orbiting around Jupiter (Figure 1.4). Although Io does not have
any visible evidence of water, it has an obvious source of energy in its

abundant volcanic activity. Europa, on the other hand, has large amounts
of water- as ice on the surface and maybe as a 'mantle' of liquid only kilo-
meters below the surface. In fact, even Jupiter could conceivably harbor
life in its atmosphere, feeding on the organic compounds that are present
there (Figure 1.5).

And, of course, there is the possibility of life existing on planets around

other stars. Based on theory (and now on observations), we expect to find
planets around other stars, and we expect some of them to have conditions
that are suitable for the origin and the continued existence of life.
Throughout the rest of this book, we will proceed systematically
through the issues pertaining to the possible existence of extraterrestrial
life. Of course, such a discussion requires knowledge of the properties of
life on the Earth, since that is our only example of life. We will begin with a
discussion of the requirements for the occurrence of life on Earth: What
were the environmental conditions on the Earth just after its formation?
When did the climate and environment first become suitable for the
continuous existence of life? What was the earliest life like and, based on
the geological evidence, when did it first appear? How does life function?
How does it obtain energy from its environment and use this energy to
power metabolism and reproduction? In what types of environments can
life exist? These will serve as constraints for discussing the origin of life.

Although we do not know for certain how life first began, we do have an
understanding of what the relevant processes were likely to have been.
Once we understand the conditions that allowed life to occur on the
Earth, we can begin to address the question of life elsewhere. Is there life in
the rest of our solar system? Rather than proceed through a lengthy discus-
sion of each planet, we will focus on the most likely and most interesting
 The search for life in the universe

IFigure 1.4]

image of the Europa surface,

taken from the voyager
spacecraft. (NASA photo.)
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