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THE BAPTIZED MUSE
The Baptized Muse
Early Christian Poetry as Cultural Authority

KARLA POLLMANN

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
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© Karla Pollmann 2017
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2017
Impression: 1
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a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, for commercial purposes,
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Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of this licence
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Printed in Great Britain by
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
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contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 Acknowledgements

My interest in early Christian poetry began with my PhD work on the anonymous
Carmen adversus Marcionitas (published Göttingen 1991), supervised and exam-
ined by the classicist Siegmar Döpp and the historical theologian Wilhelm
Geerlings, both then at the Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Germany. It is a Christian
didactic poem which is as intricate as it is unknown. Its author cannot be
determined and its controversially debated time of origin was located by me
into the early fifth century at the very earliest. From then onwards this area of
research has never ceased to fascinate me. This volume presents a collection of
articles containing some of the ensuing fruits of my further studies in the field
of early Christian poetry over the last two decades in a revised and updated
form. The Principal’s Fund of the University of St Andrews, Scotland, gave a
generous award to allow for the translation of six of the contributions in this
volume from German into English. I am much indebted to Alastair Matthews
and Madeleine Brook for their hard and diligent work with translating the
sometimes very technical German. Their astute and critical minds not only
helped to clarify some of the original statements but also removed a few factual
infelicities. I am very grateful to Professor Irmgard Männlein-Robert and to
the SFB 923 ‘Threatened Orders’ who invited me to spend the summer of 2014
as a visiting professor at the University of Tübingen, and generously funded
two research assistants, Therese Hellmich and Sarah Blessing. I owe deep-felt
thanks to both of them, as well as to Thomas G. Duncan, University of St
Andrews, and my PhD student Lorenzo Livorsi, Universities of Kent, and then
Reading, for helping me with various stages of finalizing this manuscript. Natur-
ally all remaining errors are my own.
Some of these chapters have in the meantime become ‘classics’ (such as
Chapter 4), while others are more the coveted gems of connoisseurs (like
Chapter 6 and 9). By offering these and selected other studies, all of them
now in English, updated in line with recent scholarship, and with a few
corrections—partly also following suggestions made by reviewers—added
where necessary, this volume will make these chapters more widely and easily
accessible to the academic community.
As this research interest has accompanied me throughout my entire aca-
demic career, it seems appropriate to acknowledge some of the people that
have supported and inspired me on this academic journey. Professor Siegmar
Döpp was the first to introduce me to the exciting and intricate field of early
Christian poetry. He taught me to ask critical, imaginative, and unbiased
questions and discover intellectually valid and exciting connections in
 vi Acknowledgements

unexpected areas. For this I am most grateful, as for his kindness, good sense
of humour, contagious enthusiasm, and high academic ethics. This is also true
of the late Professor Wilhelm Geerlings whose wit and creative imagination
were unparalleled. Further important academic influences were the late Profes-
sors Manfred Fuhrmann (Classics, formerly Konstanz) and Reinhart Herzog
(Classics, formerly Konstanz) to whose ground-breaking works in this field
all my contributions owe more than can be made explicit. Among the
many marvellous colleagues by whom I have been inspired and with whom
I have shared thoughts, I wish to highlight Angelo di Berardino (Rome),
Jan den Boeft (Leiden), Jean-Louis Charlet (Aix-en-Provence), Catherine
Conybeare (Bryn Mawr), Jacques Fontaine (Paris), Roger Green (Glasgow),
Hildegund Müller (Notre Dame), Willemien Otten (Chicago), Roberto Palla
(Urbino), Kurt Smolak (Vienna), the late Basil Studer (San Anselmo, Rome),
Mark Vessey (University of British Columbia), Dorothea Weber (Salzburg),
Klaus Zelzer, and the late Michaela Zelzer (both Vienna). I am aware that
there are numerous others who remain unnamed.
I am grateful for permission from the publishers to reprint, partly in
translated form, the articles that were originally published by other presses:
1. ‘Tradition and Innovation. The Transformation of Classical Literary
Genres in Christian Late Antiquity’ (= in: J. Ulrich et al. (eds), Invention,
Rewriting, Usurpation. Discursive Fights over Religious Traditions in
Antiquity (Frankfurt a.M.: Peter Lang Verlag, 2012), 103–20).
2. ‘The Test Case of Epic Poetry in Late Antiquity’ (= ‘Das Epos in der
Spätantike’, in: J. Rüpke (ed.), Von Göttern und Menschen erzählen
(Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2001), 93–129).
3. ‘Reappropriation and Disavowal: Pagan and Christian Authorities in
Cassiodorus and Venantius Fortunatus’ (= in: J. Frishman/W. Otten/
G. Rouwhorst (eds), Religious Identity and the Problem of Historical
Foundation (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 289–316).
4. Sex and Salvation in the Vergilian Cento of the Fourth Century (= in: R. Rees
(ed.), Memento Romane: Vergil in the Fourth Century (London: Bristol
Classical Press, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2004), 79–96).
5. ‘Versifying Authoritative Prose: Poetical Paraphrases of Eucherius of Lyon
by Venantius Fortunatus, Walafrid Strabo, and Sigebert of Gembloux’ (=
‘Poetry and Suffering: Metrical Paraphrases of Eucherius of Lyons’ Passio
Acaunensium Martyrum’, in W. Otten and K. Pollmann (eds), Poetry and
Exegesis in Premodern Latin Christianity (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 293–313).
6. ‘Jesus Christ and Dionysus: Rewriting Euripides in the Byzantine
Cento Christus Patiens’ (= ‘Jesus Christus und Bacchus. Überlegungen
zu dem griechischen Cento Christus patiens’, Jahrbuch für Österreichische
 Acknowledgements vii
Byzantinistik 47 (1997), 87–106; Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie
der Wissenschaften).
7. ‘Culture as Curse or Blessing? Prudentius and Avitus on the Origin
of Culture’ (= ‘Varia rerum novitate (Prud. C. Symm. 2,329): Zwei
frühchristliche Kulturentstehungslehren bei Prudentius und Avitus’, in
V. Panagl (ed.), La poesia tardoantica e medioevale (Alessandria: Edizioni
dell’Orso, 2007), 53–71).
8. ‘Christianity as Decadence or Progress in Pseudo-Hilary’s Paraphrastic
Verse Summary of the History of Salvation’ (= ‘Populus surgit melior?
Dekadenz und Fortschritt im pseudo-hilarianischen Doppelgedicht
Metrum in Genesin-Carmen de Evangelio’, in: H. Harich-
Schwarzbauer/P. Schierl (eds), Lateinische Poesie der Spätantike
(Basel: Schwabe Verlag, 2009), 179–95).
9. ‘How Far Can Sainthood Go? St Martin of Tours in Two Hagiograph-
ical Epics of Late Antiquity’ (= ‘Kontiguität und Eklipse: Zwei Auffas-
sungen von Heiligkeit im hagiographischen Epos der lateinischen
Spätantike’, in: Th. Kobusch/M. Erler (eds), Metaphysik und Religion
(Munich/Leipzig: K. G. Saur, 2002; later taken over by Walter de
Gruyter Verlag), 611–38).
10. ‘Conclusion: Authority as a Key to Understanding Early Christian
Poetry’ (= ‘Authority and Arguments in Christian Poetry of Latin
Late Antiquity’, Hermes 141 (2013), 309–33; Franz Steiner Verlag).

Karla Pollmann
Reading
December 2016
 Contents

Introduction: How to Approach Early Christian Poetry 1

PART I. THE POETICS OF AUTHORITY IN

EARLY CHRISTIAN POETRY
1. Tradition and Innovation: The Transformation of Classical
Literary Genres in Christian Late Antiquity 19
2. The Test Case of Epic Poetry in Late Antiquity 37
3. Reappropriation and Disavowal: Pagan and Christian Authorities
in Cassiodorus and Venantius Fortunatus 76

PART II. CHRISTIAN AUTHORITY AND

POETIC SUCCESSI ON
4. Sex and Salvation in the Vergilian Cento of the Fourth Century 101
5. Versifying Authoritative Prose: Poetical Paraphrases of Eucherius
of Lyon by Venantius Fortunatus, Walafrid Strabo, and Sigebert
of Gembloux 120
6. Jesus Christ and Dionysus: Rewriting Euripides in the Byzantine
Cento Christus Patiens 140

PART III. POETIC AUTHORITY IN

RIVALLING CULTURAL AND
THEOLOGICAL DISCOURSES
7. Culture as Curse or Blessing? Prudentius and Avitus on
the Origins of Culture 161
8. Christianity as Decadence or Progress in Pseudo-Hilary’s
Paraphrastic Verse Summary of the History of Salvation 176
9. How Far Can Sainthood Go? St Martin of Tours in
Two Hagiographical Epics of Late Antiquity 191

Conclusion: Authority as a Key to Understanding

Early Christian Poetry 215

Bibliography 235
Name Index 259
Subject Index 263
 Introduction
How to Approach Early Christian Poetry

GENERAL REMARKS

Early Christian poetry, with its beginnings in the middle of the third century
and lasting until around 600 AD, continues to be an area that is neglected in
research on later ancient literature. The main reason for this is that this literary
genre falls between two stools as regards the boundaries of academic discip-
lines: for classicists, on the one hand, the genre’s chronologically late roots in
the ‘decadent’ period of late antiquity, combined with the ‘proper’ classicist’s
dislike for things Christian (which had, for instance, not been the case in the
seventeenth century), render the genre’s literary quality and merit suspect.
Theologians, on the other hand, do not regard early Christian poetry as
contributing anything of vital interest to the delineation of a normative
theology or dogmatic history; prose texts are seen as having the prerogative
in this context. Present-day theologians are supported in this position by the
very critical attitude of some authoritative fourth- and fifth-century Christian
thinkers towards the phenomenon of Christian poetry which was coming to
the fore in their time. Most notably Jerome and Augustine denied value to
practically any form of Christian poetry, which was at best an idle waste of
time; some 1,500 years later Ernst Robert Curtius in his classic European
Literature and the Latin Middle Ages notoriously called biblical epic a genre
faux (see in this volume Chapter 2, pp. 62–3). This unfortunate state of affairs
is only insufficiently compensated for by the acknowledgement of some
literary critics from late antiquity up until early modernity as to the high
quality of some of these versifications. It is therefore in scholarly studies on
medieval and early modern literature that one is most likely to find consider-
ation given to the artistry, the reception, and the later tradition of early
Christian poetry.
There are, however, some notable exceptions to this trend in the discipline of
classics, where, in particular, scholars from France (Jacques Fontaine, Jean-Louis
2 Introduction

Charlet), Italy (Roberto Palla, Franca Ela Consolino), the Netherlands

(A. A. R. Bastiaensen, Jan den Boeft), Austria (Kurt Smolak, Dorothea
Weber, Hildegund Müller), and Germany (Manfred Fuhrmann, Reinhart
Herzog, Christian Gnilka, Siegmar Döpp) have made considerable inroads
since the Second World War. Inter- and transdisciplinary literary theories like
the aesthetics of reception (Rezeptionsästhetik), paratexts, inter- and hyper-
textuality (littérature au second degré), as well as the blossoming of reception
studies in classics in recent years, have facilitated and will continue to facilitate
the study of this intricate, elitist, and highly complex body of literature
with the philological rigour, intellectual curiosity and unbiased attention it
deserves, focusing in particular on its innovative wealth of thought, its cultural
context, function, and impact. This will not only fill a considerable gap in our
knowledge of the history of European literature, mentality and thought, but
will also enable a better understanding of later literary artefacts standing in
this tradition, ranging from Beowulf to Milton’s Paradise Lost. This volume
presents original interpretations of a wide range of works by predominantly
Latin late antique poets and employs an innovative method taking literary
devices, classical poetic models, historical context as well as exegetical and
theological dimensions into account. By drawing attention to this literary
production which is hardly known in the wider community of scholars in
the humanities, this volume contributes essential historical information as well
as groundbreaking analyses to the current wider debate concerning ownership
of cultural products and intellectual traditions. Thereby, the chapters in this
volume also engage with the wider, controversial issue of religious in- and
transculturation where it pertains to a suppressed class (in our case the very
early Christians) taking over cultural products of their suppressors (here the
pagan Roman imperial elite). But most importantly, this volume helps to
clarify, first, that such attempts at cultural transfer, or even ‘conquest’, are
not a new invention or development of postmodern times, and, second,
that their legitimacy does not so much lie in the right to own or disown
cultural goods, but in the way that those who have access to them use them for
varying purposes.
To sketch the late antique panorama of such purposes, the volume offers
individual case studies that carefully analyse various early Christian poems,
mainly written in the Latin West between the fourth and sixth centuries, in
order to tackle unresolved or striking, hitherto unnoticed issues in them. But
beyond this cumulative interest, as it were, the case studies are united in their
aim of making a more foundational point about the very nature of early
Christian poetry at large, specifically by demonstrating how early Christian
poetry was one expedient and an effective device by which Christianity
managed to establish its agenda in a forceful way. By usurping the established
authority of pagan poetry as a cultural identity marker, Christianity opened up
a plethora of possibilities for invading this pagan elitist cultural space and for
 Introduction 3

using it to disseminate Christian messages, thereby making them more ubi-

quitous, reaching educated audiences of a high social status. This method of
usurping cultural techniques that were originally developed by an initially
hostile environment in order to endorse one’s own, different purposes proved
highly successful. It engendered a powerful, lasting tradition of imitators and
successors, and had far-reaching consequences pertaining to the firm estab-
lishment of Christianity as a cultural force in Europe. This volume therefore
argues that a vital key to understanding the cultural phenomenon of early
Christian poetry is the recognition of its function in augmenting the position
of its authors and thus enhancing their power to influence people’s actions,
opinions or beliefs—in short, by adding cultural authority to Christianity’s
message and agenda. This discovery transforms the way we can now look
at early Christian poetry: instead of seeing it as derivative and ‘decadent’,
depending on a glorious past because of the lack of talent and ingenuity on the
part of the early Christian poets, it is now to be recognized as a highly original
strategy of establishing itself as a new dominating cultural force in a changing
environment, thereby both preserving the cultural past it usurps and contrib-
uting to the success and endurance of Christian thought in a time of radical
historical transition. In its highly ambitious enterprise, early Christian poetry
aimed at nothing less than combining:
(1) a Christianized, classically informed poetic aesthetics;
(2) a personal involvement of the poet with God through the sacrifice of his
poetry as well as a relatively frequent and explicit engagement with the
readers as the means that unlocks the meaning of the text; and
(3) a generically embedded, all-permeating textual referentiality by per-
forming a versified exegesis of the Bible as the ultimate reference text.
This intricate combination of literary strategies serves the purpose of having
maximum impact on the readers in the following ways:
(1) by pleasing the readers by way of poetic embellishment, challenging
them intellectually through obscure, enigmatic and/or abbreviated
expressions, and making the content more memorable through the
use of verse;
(2) by focusing on the poet, God and the readers as the true locations of
poetic enactment, in order to provide religious edification; and
(3) by making a genuine, intellectually challenging contribution to scrip-
tural exegesis, in order to contribute an enhanced and deepened under-
standing of Scripture’s ethical and soteriological messages.
In this way, Christian poetry can be seen not as an alien or false element of
religious articulation, but as an integrated part and genuine expression of faith,
contributing a fresh form of edification, a new cultural and communicative
4 Introduction

space and an innovative means of biblical exegesis. The Conclusion to this

volume serves as a more elaborate exposition of these points and intends to
open up further possibilities for new scholarly departures by unlocking the as
yet not fully realized richness of early Christian poetry, a poetry that has a lot
to offer precisely in times of cultural and political change.

S T A T E OF R E S E ARC H

When one looks at the last decade or so of research in the field of Latin early
Christian poetry, the dominant trend is still to concentrate on individual
authors or poems. Examples of this include Roger Green, Latin Epics of the
New Testament: Juvencus, Sedulius, Arator (Oxford, 2006); Luigi Castagna
(ed.), Quesiti, temi, testi di poesia tardolatina (Frankfurt a.M., 2006); Aniello
Salzano, Agli inizi della poesia cristiana latina; autori anonimi dei secc. IV-V
(Salerno, 2007); Marc Mastrangelo, The Roman Self in Late Antiquity: Pru-
dentius and the Poetics of the Soul (Baltimore, 2008); Michael Roberts, The
Humblest Sparrow: The Poetry of Venantius Fortunatus (Ann Arbor, 2009);
Henriette Harich-Schwarzbauer and Petra Schierl (eds.), Lateinische Poesie der
Spätantike (Basle, 2009); Anthony Dykes, Reading Sin in the World: The
‘Hamartigenia’ of Prudentius and the Vocation of the Responsible Reader
(Cambridge, 2011); Martha A. Malamud, Prudentius. Origin of Sin: An English
Translation of the Hamartigenia (Ithaca and London, 2011) which contains a
substantial interpretative essay; and Gerard O’Daly, Days Linked by Song:
Prudentius’ Cathemerinon (Oxford, 2012). Notably, the long neglected genre
of the cento has attracted recent scholarly attention that embeds this genre in a
wider literary–historical context, considering both its origins and its reception,
by Martin Bažil, Centones Christiani. Métamorphoses d’une forme intertex-
tuelle dans la poésie chrétienne de l’Antiquité tardive (Paris, 2009); Valentina
Sineri, Il Centone di Proba (Acireale, 2011); Karl Olav Sandnes, The Gospel
‘According to Homer and Virgil’: Cento and Canon (Leiden, 2011); and by
Sigrid Schottenius Cullhed, Proba the Prophet. The Christian Virgilian
Cento of Faltonia Betitia Proba (Leiden, 2015; see the review of this book
by Gottfried Kreuz in Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum 20 (2016),
197–202, and my review of the original Göteborg Ph.D., 2012, in Samlaren
134 (2013), 251–6).
In addition to these contributions, there are now steps being taken to go
beyond the analysis of individual works and poets of late antiquity and to
pursue a better understanding of the poetic and aesthetic principles that
guided this period in particular. The ultimate aims are to define more clearly
the specific peculiarities of literary aesthetics in late antiquity in comparison
to the preceding classical period, to elicit its distinctive ambitions and the
 Introduction 5

different functions it accords to its poetic products in a changed cultural and

political environment, and, finally, to outline the innovative characteristics
of such a late antique poetics and their still too often unrecognized impact on
later literature. Early Christian poetry in particular is characterized by a
strong emphasis on the personal connection between the poet and his or her
work which is of salvific significance, on including the exegetical traditions
and scholarship relating both to the Bible and to classical pagan authors, and
on the eschatological dimension of all human endeavour, including poetry.
Recently this has been attempted in various ways, but scholars in general
agree that the last word has not yet been spoken regarding this complex issue.
As a pioneer in this respect the late Reinhart Herzog merits special mention:
a selection of his important, ground-breaking articles on late antique poetics
has been edited by Peter Habermehl, under the title Spätantike Studien zur
römischen und lateinisch-christlichen Literatur (Göttingen, 2002). In a collec-
tion of articles co-edited by Willemien Otten and myself, Poetry and Exegesis
in Premodern Latin Christianity (Leiden, 2007), the contributors demonstrate
from various angles how early Christian poetry in general, and versifications of
Christian exegetical prose works in particular, not only helped to generate a
specifically Christian aesthetic perception, but also enhanced the results of the
biblical interpretations themselves. Several articles by Marco Formisano deal
with more general aspects of late antique poetics, in particular his ‘Late
Antiquity, New Departures’, in Ralph Hexter and David Townsend (eds.),
The Oxford Handbook of Medieval Latin Literature (Oxford, 2012), 509–34.
Not entirely convincingly, Formisano draws attention to ‘three textual aspects
which . . . are new and specific to late antiquity in comparison with earlier
periods’ (511): first, knowledge, second, panegyric, and third, fragmentation,
dislocation, and replacement. Apart from the fact that these textual aspects can
already be encountered in works from the earlier classical period, further
elaboration is needed as to what their defining contribution to late antiquity
is as distinct from earlier periods. There also still remains work to be done as
to their specific late antique shape and function in contrast to the earlier
classical period when they were also already in use. Finally, it cannot be
claimed that these three textual aspects exhaustively demarcate the key char-
acteristics of Christian poetry. The monograph by Aaron Pelttari, The Space
that Remains: Reading Latin poetry in late antiquity (Ithaca and London,
2014), concentrates predominantly on the poetic output of Ausonius, Clau-
dian, and Prudentius, with the aim of establishing poetic principles of Latin
late antique poetry. Pelttari correctly emphasizes the importance of a strong
reader already inherent in late antique poetics, its historical distance from
classical literature and the new meaning which is thereby engendered,
but leaves out completely the essential exegetical dimension of this poetry.
Particularly illuminating is the substantial chapter in Anders Cullhed, The
Shadow of Creusa: Negotiating Fictionality in Late Antique Latin Literature
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1860

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PERIODICALS 1861 enjoy

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THIS of perhaps

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and Big
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