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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi

2-Dimensional Categories
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi

2-Dimensional
Categories
NILES JOHNSON
D O NA L D YAU

1
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi

3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Niles Johnson and Donald Yau 2021
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First Edition published in 2021
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2020947503
ISBN 978–0–19–887137–8 (hbk.)
ISBN 978–0–19–887138–5 (pbk.)
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198871378.001.0001
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi

The first author dedicates this book to his wife, Nemili.

The second author dedicates this book to Eun Soo and Jacqueline.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi

Preface

2-Dimensional Categories

The theory of 2-dimensional categories, which includes 2-categories and

bicategories, is a fundamental part of modern category theory with a
wide range of applications not only in mathematics but also in physics
[BN96, KV94a, KV94b, KTZ20, Par18, SP∞], computer science [PL07],
and linguistics [Lam04, Lam11]. The basic definitions and properties of
2-categories and bicategories were introduced by Bénabou in [Bén65] and
[Bén67], respectively. The one-object case is illustrative: a monoid, which is
a set with a unital and associative multiplication, is a one-object category. A
monoidal category, which is a category with a product that is associative
and unital up to coherent isomorphisms, is a one-object bicategory. The
definition of a bicategory is obtained from that of a category by replacing the
hom sets with hom categories, the composition and identities with functors,
and the associativity and unity axioms with natural isomorphisms called the
associator and the unitors. These data satisfy unity and pentagon axioms that
are conceptually identical to those in a monoidal category. A 2-category is a
bicategory in which the associator and the unitors are identities.
For example, small categories, functors, and natural transformations form
a 2-category Cat. As we will see in Sections 2.4 and 2.5, there are similar
2-categories of multicategories and of polycategories. An important bicategory
in algebra is Bimod, with rings as objects, bimodules as 1-cells, and bimodule
homomorphisms as 2-cells. Another important bicategory is Span(C) for a
category C with all pullbacks. This bicategory has the same objects as C and
has spans in C as 1-cells. We will see in Example 6.4.9 that internal categories
in C are monads in the bicategory Span(C).

Purpose and Audience

The literature on bicategories and 2-categories is scattered in a large number

of research papers that span over half a century. Moreover, some fundamental
results, well known to experts, are mentioned with little or no detail in the
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi

viii preface

research literature. This presents a significant obstruction for beginners in the

study of 2-dimensional categories. Varying terminology across the literature
compounds the difficulty.
This book is a self-contained introduction to bicategories and 2-categories,
assuming only the most elementary aspects of category theory, which is
summarized in Chapter 1. The content is written for non-expert readers and
provides complete details in both the basic definitions and fundamental results
about bicategories and 2-categories. It aims to serve as both an entry point for
students and a reference for researchers in related fields.
A review of basic category theory is followed by a systematic discussion of
2-/bicategories, pasting diagrams, morphisms (functors, transformations, and
modifications), 2-/bilimits, the Duskin nerve, the 2-nerve, internal adjunc-
tions, monads in bicategories, 2-monads, biequivalences, the Bicategorical
Yoneda Lemma, and the Coherence Theorem for bicategories. The next two
chapters discuss Grothendieck fibrations and the Grothendieck construction.
The last two chapters provide introductions to more advanced topics, includ-
ing tricategories, monoidal bicategories, the Gray tensor product, and double
categories.

Features

Details: As mentioned above, one aspect that makes this subject challenging
for beginners is the lack of detailed proofs, or sometimes even precise
statements, of some fundamental results that are well known to experts.
To make the subject of 2-dimensional categories as widely accessible as
possible, this text presents precise statements and completely detailed
proofs of the following fundamental but hard-to-find results:

• The Bicategorical Pasting Theorem 3.6.6, which shows that every

pasting diagram has a well-defined and unique composite.
• The Whitehead Theorem 7.4.1, which gives a local characterization of
a biequivalence, and a 2-categorical version in Theorem 7.5.8.
• The Bicategorical Yoneda Lemma 8.3.16 and the corresponding
Coherence Theorem 8.4.1 for bicategories.
• The Grothendieck Fibration Theorem 9.5.6: cloven and split fibrations
are, respectively, pseudo and strict F-algebras for a 2-monad F.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi

features ix

• The Grothendieck Construction Theorem 10.6.16: the Grothendieck

construction is a 2-equivalence from the 2-category of pseudofunctors
Cop Cat to the 2-category of fibrations over C.
• The Grothendieck construction is a lax colimit (Theorem 10.2.3).
• The Gray tensor product is symmetric monoidal with an adjoint hom,
providing a symmetric monoidal closed structure on the category of
2-categories and 2-functors (Theorem 12.2.31).

2-Categorical restrictions: The special case of 2-categories is both simpler

and of independent importance. There is an extensive literature for
2-categories in their own right, some of which does not have a bicat-
egorical analog. Whenever appropriate, the 2-categorical version of a
bicategorical concept is presented. For example, Definition 2.3.2 of a
2-category is immediately unpacked into explicit data and axioms and
then restated in terms of a Cat-enriched category. Another example
is the Whitehead Theorem in Chapter 7, which is first discussed for
bicategories and then restricted to 2-categories.

Motivation and explanation: Definitions of main concepts are preceded by

motivational discussion that makes the upcoming definitions easier to
understand. Whenever useful, main definitions are immediately fol-
lowed by a detailed explanation that helps the reader interpret and
unpack the various components. In the text, these are clearly marked
as Motivation and Explanation, respectively.

Review: To make this book self-contained and accessible to beginners, defi-

nitions and facts in basic category theory are summarized in Chapter 1.

Exercises and notes: Exercises are collected in the final section of each chap-
ter. Most of them involve proof techniques that are already discussed in
detail in that chapter or earlier in this book. At the end of each chapter,
we provide additional notes regarding references, terminology, related
concepts, or other information that may be inessential but helpful to the
reader.

Organization: Extensive and precise cross-references are given when earlier

definitions and results are used. Near the end of this book, in addition to
a detailed index, we also include a list of main facts and a list of notations,
each organized by chapters.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi

x preface

Related Literature

The literature on bicategories and 2-categories is extensive, and a compre-

hensive review is beyond our scope. Here we mention only a selection of key
references for background or further reading. The Notes section at the end of
each chapter provides additional references for the content of that chapter.

1-Categories: [Awo10, Gra18, Lei14, Rie16, Rom17, Sim11]. These

are introductory books on basic category theory at the advanced
undergraduate and beginning graduate level. The standard reference
for enriched category theory is [Kel05].

2-Categories: A standard reference is [KS74].

Bicategories: Besides the founding paper [Bén67], the papers [Lac10a, Lei∞,
Str80, Str87, Str96] are often used as references.

Tricategories: The basic definitions and coherence of tricategories are dis-

cussed in [GPS95, Gur13].

(∞, 1)-Categories: Different models of (∞, 1)-categories are discussed in the

books [Ber18, Cis19, Lei04, Lur09, Pao19, Rie14, Sim12].

Chapter Summaries

A brief description of each chapter follows.

Chapter 1: To make this book self-contained and accessible to beginners, in

the first chapter we review basic concepts of category theory. Starting
from the definitions of a category, a functor, and a natural transforma-
tion, we review limits, adjunctions, equivalences, the Yoneda Lemma,
and monads. Then we review monoidal categories, which serve as both
examples and motivation for bicategories, and Mac Lane’s Coherence
Theorem. Next we review enriched categories, which provide one char-
acterization of 2-categories.

Chapter 2: The definitions of a bicategory and of a 2-category, along with

basic examples, are given in this chapter. Section 2.2 contains several
useful unity properties in bicategories, generalizing those in monoidal
categories. These unity properties underlie many fundamental results
in bicategory theory and are often used implicitly in the literature.
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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi

chapter summaries xi

They will be used many times in later chapters. Examples include the
uniqueness of lax and pseudo bilimits in Theorem 5.1.19, an explicit
description of the Duskin nerve in Section 5.4, mates in Lemma 6.1.13,
the Whitehead Theorem 7.4.1, the Bicategorical Yoneda Lemma 8.3.16,
and the tricategory of bicategories in Chapter 11, to name a few.

Chapter 3: This chapter provides pasting theorems for 2-categories and bicat-
egories. We discuss a 2-categorical pasting theorem first, although our
bicategorical pasting theorem does not depend on the 2-categorical ver-
sion. Each pasting theorem says that a pasting diagram, in a 2-category
or a bicategory, has a unique composite. We refer the reader to Note 3.8.9
for a discussion of why it is important to not base a bicategorical past-
ing theorem on a 2-categorical version, the Whitehead Theorem (i.e.,
local characterization of a biequivalence) or the Bicategorical Coherence
Theorem. String diagrams, which provide another way to visualize and
manipulate pasting diagrams, are discussed in Section 3.7.

Chapter 4: This chapter presents bicategorical analogues of functors and nat-

ural transformations. We introduce lax functors between bicategories,
lax transformations between lax functors, and modifications between
lax transformations. We discuss important variations, including pseud-
ofunctors, strong transformations, and icons. The representable pseud-
ofunctors, representable transformations, and representable modifica-
tions in Section 4.5 will be important in Chapter 8 when we discuss the
Bicategorical Yoneda Lemma 8.3.16.

Chapter 5: This chapter is about bicategorical analogs of limits and nerves.

Using lax functors and pseudofunctors, we define lax cones and pseudo-
cones with respect to a lax functor. These concepts are used to define lax
and pseudo versions of bilimits and limits. We show in Theorem 5.1.19
that, like the 1-categorical fact that limits are unique up to an iso-
morphism, lax and pseudo (bi)limits are unique up to an equivalence
and an invertible modification. We also discuss the dual concepts of
lax and pseudo (bi)colimits, and 2-(co)limits. Next we describe the
Duskin nerve and the 2-nerve, which associate to each small bicategory
a simplicial set and a simplicial category, respectively. These are two
different generalizations of the 1-categorical Grothendieck nerve, and
for each we give an explicit description of their simplices.

Chapter 6: In this chapter we discuss bicategorical analogs of adjunctions,

adjoint equivalences, and monads. After defining an internal adjunction
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi

xii preface

in a bicategory and discussing some basic properties and examples, we

discuss the theory of mates, which is a useful consequence of adjunc-
tions. The basic concept of sameness between bicategories is that of
a biequivalence, which is defined using adjoint equivalences in bicat-
egories. Biequivalences between bicategories will play major roles in
Chapters 7, 8, and 10. The second half of this chapter is about monads in
a bicategory, 2-monads on a 2-category, and various concepts of algebras
of a 2-monad. In Chapter 9 we will use pseudo and strict algebras of a
2-monad F to characterize cloven and split fibrations.

Chapter 7: In this chapter we provide a careful proof of a central result in basic

bicategory theory, namely, the local characterization of a biequivalence
between bicategories, which we call the Whitehead Theorem. This ter-
minology comes from homotopy theory, with the Whitehead Theorem
stating that a continuous map between CW complexes is a homotopy
equivalence if and only if it induces an isomorphism on all homotopy
groups. In 1-category theory, a functor is an equivalence if and only if
it is essentially surjective on objects and fully faithful on morphisms.
Analogously, the Bicategorical Whitehead Theorem 7.4.1 says that a
pseudofunctor between bicategories is a biequivalence if and only if it
is essentially surjective on objects (i.e., surjective up to adjoint equiva-
lences), essentially full on 1-cells (i.e., surjective up to isomorphisms),
and fully faithful on 2-cells (i.e., a bijection). Although the statement of
this result is similar to the 1-categorical version, the actual details in the
proof are much more involved. We give an outline in the introduction
of the chapter. The Bicategorical Whitehead Theorem 7.4.1 will be used
in Chapter 8 to prove the Coherence Theorem 8.4.1 for bicategories.
Furthermore, the 2-Categorical Whitehead Theorem 7.5.8 will be used
in Chapter 10 to establish a 2-equivalence between a 2-category of
Grothendieck fibrations and a 2-category of pseudofunctors.

Chapter 8: The Yoneda Lemma is a central result in 1-category theory, and it

entails several related statements about represented functors and natural
transformations. In this chapter we discuss their bicategorical analogues.
In Section 8.1 we discuss several versions of the 1-categorical Yoneda
Lemma, both as a refresher and as motivation for the bicategorical ver-
sions. In Section 8.2 we construct a bicategorical version of the Yoneda
embedding for a bicategory, which we call the Yoneda pseudofunctor.
In Section 8.3 we first establish the Bicategorical Yoneda Embedding in
Lemma 8.3.12, which states that the Yoneda pseudofunctor is a local
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi

chapter summaries xiii

equivalence. Then we prove the Bicategorical Yoneda Lemma 8.3.16,

which describes a pseudofunctor F ∶ Bop Cat in terms of strong
transformations from the Yoneda pseudofunctor to F. A consequence of
the Bicategorical Whitehead Theorem 7.4.1 and the Bicategorical Yoneda
Embedding is the Bicategorical Coherence Theorem 8.4.1, which states
that every bicategory is biequivalent to a 2-category.

Chapter 9: This chapter is about Grothendieck fibrations. A functor is called

a fibration if, in our terminology, every pre-lift has a Cartesian lift.
A fibration with a chosen Cartesian lift for each pre-lift is called a
cloven fibration, which is, furthermore, a split fibration if it satisfies a
unity property and a multiplicativity property. After discussing some
basic properties and examples of fibrations, we observe that there is
a 2-category Fib(C) with fibrations over a given small category C as
objects. In Theorem 9.1.20 we observe that fibrations are closed under
pullbacks and that equivalences of 1-categories are closed under pull-
backs along fibrations. The rest of this chapter contains the construction
of a 2-monad F on the overcategory Cat/C and a detailed proof of the
Grothendieck Fibration Theorem 9.5.6. The latter provides an explicit
bijection between cloven fibrations and pseudo F-algebras, and also
between split fibrations and strict F-algebras.

Chapter 10: This chapter presents the fundamental concept of the Grothendieck
construction ∫ F of a lax functor F ∶ Cop Cat. For a pseudofunctor
F, the category ∫ F is equipped with a fibration UF ∶ ∫ F C over C,
which is split precisely when F is a strict functor. Using the concepts
from Chapter 5, next we show that the Grothendieck construction
is a lax colimit of F. Most of the rest of this chapter contains a
detailed proof of the Grothendieck Construction Theorem 10.6.16:
the Grothendieck construction is part of a 2-equivalence from the
2-category of pseudofunctors Cop Cat, strong transformations,
and modifications, to the 2-category of fibrations over C, Cartesian
functors, and vertical natural transformations. Section 10.7 briefly
discusses a generalization of the Grothendieck construction that applies
to an indexed bicategory.

Chapter 11: This chapter is about a 3-dimensional generalization of a bicate-

gory called a tricategory. After a preliminary discussion of whiskerings
of a lax transformation with a lax functor, we define a tricategory. The
Bicategorical Pasting Theorem 3.6.6 plays a crucial role in interpreting
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi

xiv preface

the axioms of a tricategory, which are all stated in terms of pasting

diagrams. The rest of this chapter contains the detailed definitions and
a proof of the existence of a tricategory B with small bicategories as
objects, pseudofunctors as 1-cells, strong transformations as 2-cells, and
modifications as 3-cells.

Chapter 12: Other 2-dimensional categorical structures are discussed in this

chapter. Motivated by the fact that monoidal categories are one-object
bicategories, a monoidal bicategory is defined as a one-object tricate-
gory. Then we discuss the braided, sylleptic, and symmetric versions
of monoidal bicategories. Just as it is for tricategories, the Bicategorical
Pasting Theorem 3.6.6 is crucial in interpreting their axioms. Next
we discuss the Gray tensor product on 2-categories, which provides
a symmetric monoidal structure that is different from the Cartesian
one, and the corresponding Gray monoids. The last part of this chapter
discusses double categories and monoidal double categories.

Chapter Interdependency

The core concepts in Chapters 2 through 4 are used in all the subsequent
chapters. Chapters 6 through 9 are independent of Chapter 5. Chapters 7
and 8 require internal adjunctions, mates, and internal equivalences from
Sections 6.1 and 6.2. Chapter 9 uses 2-monads from Section 6.5. Chapter 10
depends on all of Chapter 9, and Section 10.2 uses lax colimits from Section 5.2.
The rest of Chapter 10 uses the 2-Categorical Whitehead Theorem 7.5.8.
Chapters 11 and 12 use internal adjunctions, mates, and internal equivalences
from Sections 6.1 and 6.2 but none of the other material after Chapter 4.
Chapter 12 depends on the whiskerings of Section 11.1 and the definition
of a tricategory from Section 11.2. The following graph summarizes these
dependencies.
5.2
5 10
7.5

2–4 7, 8

6.1, 6.2 6.5 9

6 11 12
6.1, 6.2 11.1, 11.2
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/11/2020, SPi

acknowledgments xv

Acknowledgments

For helpful feedback on an early draft, the authors thank John Baez, Michael
Horst, Martti Karvonen, Ralf Meyer, Joe Moeller, Emily Riehl, David Roberts,
and Michael Shulman.
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[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 34: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 37: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 37: Practical applications and examples
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Conclusion 5: Fundamental concepts and principles
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 41: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 45: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 6: Research findings and conclusions
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 54: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 57: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 7: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Practice Problem 60: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 67: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 68: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 8: Interdisciplinary approaches
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 71: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 73: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 73: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Methodology 9: Key terms and definitions
Example 80: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 81: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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