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 NATIONAL
CHARACTER
IN
SOUTH AFRICAN
ENGLISH
CHILDREN’S
LITERATURE
 CHILDREN’S LITERATURE AND CULTURE
Jack Zipes, Series Editor

Children’s Literature Comes of Age The Case of Peter Rabbit How Picturebooks Work
Toward a New Aesthetic Changing Conditions of Literature for by Maria Nikolajeva and Carole
by Maria Nikolajeva Children Scott
by Margaret Mackey
Sparing the Child Brown Gold
Grief and the Unspeakable in Youth The Feminine Subject in Children’s Milestones of African American
Literature About Nazism and the Literature Children’s Picture Books, 1845–2002
Holocaust by Christine Wilkie-Stibbs by Michelle H. Martin
by Hamida Bosmajian
Ideologies of Identity in Adolescent Russell Hoban/Forty Years
Rediscoveries in Children’s Fiction Essays on His Writing for Children
Literature by Robyn McCallum by Alida Allison
by Suzanne Rahn
Recycling Red Riding Hood
Apartheid and Racism in South
Inventing the Child by Sandra Beckett
African
Culture, Ideology, and the Story of
The Poetics of Childhood Children’s Literature
Childhood
by Roni Natov by Donnarae MacCann and Amadu
by Joseph L. Zornado
Maddy
Regendering the School Story Voices of the Other
Sassy Sissies and Tattling Tomboys Children’s Literature and the Empire’s Children
by Beverly Lyon Clark Postcolonial Context Empire and Imperialism in Classic
edited by Roderick McGillis British Children’s Books
A Necessary Fantasy? by M. Daphne Kutzer
The Heroic Figure in Children’s Narrating Africa
Popular Culture George Henty and the Fiction of Constructing the Canon of
edited by Dudley Jones and Tony Empire Children’s Literature
Watkins by Mawuena Kossi Logan Beyond Library Walls and Ivory
Towers
White Supremacy in Children’s Reimagining Shakespeare for by Anne Lundin
Literature Children and Young Adults
Characterizations of African edited by Naomi J. Miller Youth of Darkest England
Americans, 1830-1900 Working Class Children at the Heart of
by Donnarae MacCann Representing the Holocaust in Victorian Empire
Youth Literature by Troy Boone
Ways of Being Male by Lydia Kokkola
Representing Masculinities in Ursula K. Leguin Beyond Genre
Children’s Literature and Film Translating for Children Literature for Children and Adults
by John Stephens by Riitta Oittinen by Mike Cadden

Retelling Stories, Framing Culture Beatrix Potter Twice-Told Children’s Tales

Traditional Story and Metanarratives Writing in Code edited by Betty Greenway
in Children’s Literature by M. Daphne Kutzer
by John Stephens and Robyn Diana Wynne Jones
McCallum Children’s Films
The Fantastic Tradition and Children’s
History, Ideology, Pedagogy, Theory
Literature
Pinocchio Goes Postmodern by Ian Wojcik-Andrews
by Farah Mendlesohn
Perils of a Puppet in the United States
by Richard Wunderlich and Thomas Utopian and Dystopian Writing for
Childhood and Children’s Books in
J. Morrissey Children and Young Adults
Early Modern Europe, 1550–1800
edited by Carrie Hintz and Elaine
Little Women and the Feminist edited by Andrea Immel and
Ostry
Imagination Michael Witmore
Criticism, Controversy, Personal Transcending Boundaries
Essays Writing for a Dual Audience of Voracious Children
edited by Janice M. Alberghene and Children and Adults Who Eats Whom in Children’s
Beverly Lyon Clark edited by Sandra L. Beckett Literature
by Carolyn Daniel
The Presence of the Past The Making of the Modern Child
Memory, Heritage, and Childhood in Children’s Literature and Childhood in National Character in South
Postwar Britain the Late Eighteenth Century African Children’s Literature
by Valerie Krips by Andrew O’Malley by Elwin Jenkins

RT6766X_Prelims.indd ii 8/3/06 10:28:16 AM

 NATIONAL
CHARACTER
IN
SOUTH AFRICAN
ENGLISH
CHILDREN’S
LITERATURE

Elwyn Jenkins

New York London

Routledge is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Routledge Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group Taylor & Francis Group
270 Madison Avenue 2 Park Square
New York, NY 10016 Milton Park, Abingdon
Oxon OX14 4RN

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

International Standard Book Number-10: 0-415-97676-6 (Hardcover)

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-415-97676-3 (Hardcover)

No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming,
and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the
publishers.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the Routledge Web site at

http://www.routledge-ny.com
 CONTENTS

List of Illustrations vii

Acknowledgments ix
Introduction xi
Series Editor’s Foreword xvii

1 Country Children 1
2 Famous Writers and Books 21
3 Ecology 43
4 Fairies, Talking Animals and Patriotism 61
5 Folktales 87
6 Stories in the Folktale Tradition 109
7 The San and the National Conscience 123
8 Cross-Cultural Dressing, Nudity and Cultural Identity 151
9 City Children 171

Notes 189
Bibliography 207
Index 221

RT6766X_TOC.indd v 8/3/06 8:22:28 PM

RT6766X_TOC.indd vi 8/3/06 8:22:30 PM
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Title page from The Fairies in the Mealie Patch by G.M. Rog-
ers and title page design for the Juta’s Juvenile Library series
2. Illustration by Esdon Frost from Tickey by Sheila Dederick
3. Illustration by Katrine Harries from Kana and His Dog by
Jessie Hertslet
4. Illustration by Keith van Winkel from The King who Loved
Birds by Patricia Schonstein Pinnock
5. Illustration by Cythna Letty from The Locust Bird by Ella
MacKenzie
6. Illustration by Azaria Mbatha from Tales of the Trickster Boy
by Jack Cope
7. Illustration by John van Reenen from The White Arrow by
Pieter Grobbelaar
8. Cover design by Lesley Sharman for the Maskew Miller Long-
man edition of Song of Be by Lesley Beake
9. Illustration by Len Lindique, cover design by Dirk Joubert for
Tongelo by Catherine Annandale
10. Cover design by Orchard Publishing for Dance Idols by Anne
Schlebusch
11. Illustration by Niki Daly from Not so Fast, Songololo by
Niki Daly

vii

RT6766X_C000.indd vii 8/3/06 10:30:30 AM

RT6766X_C000.indd viii 8/3/06 10:30:32 AM
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Some parts of this book include revised versions or parts of previously

published articles by the author, which are reproduced by kind per-
mission of the publishers: “The Growth of a National Children’s Lit-
erature in English,” The English Academy Review 18 (2001): 140–149;
“Is Platkops Children a Children’s Book?” English in Africa 28(2) (Octo-
ber 2001): 135–140; “Nudity, Clothing and Cultural Identity,” English
in Africa 30(1) (May 2003): 88–104; “English South African Children’s
Literature and the Environment,” Literator 25(3) (December 2004):
107–123; “Fairies on the Veld,” in Comedy, Fantasy and Colonialism,
Ed. Graham Harper (London and New York: Continuum, 2002): 89–
103; “Adult Agendas in Publishing South African Folktales for Chil-
dren,” reproduced by kind permission of Springer Science and Business
Media from Children’s Literature and Education 33(4) (December 2002):
269–284, © Human Sciences Press, Inc.; “The Millennial Message of
Peter Slingsby’s The Joining,” Current Writing 12(1) (April 2000): 31–41;
“Images of the San,” in Other Worlds, Other Lives, Eds. Myrna Machet,
Sandra Olën and Thomas van der Walt (Pretoria: Unisa Press, 1996):
Vol. 1, 270–296.
Illustrations have been reproduced from the following books by kind
permission of the publishers: The King who Loved Birds, by Patricia
Pinnock (Grahamstown: African Sun, 1992); The Fairies in the Mealie
Patch, by G.M. Rogers (Cape Town: Juta, n.d.); and Dance Idols, by
Anne Schlebusch (Cape Town: New Africa Books, 2003). The follow-
ing illustrations have been reproduced by kind permission of Maskew
Miller Longman: from Song of Be, by Lesley Beake (Cape Town:
Maskew Miller Longman, 1991) and Tongelo by Catherine Annandale

ix

RT6766X_C000.indd ix 8/3/06 10:30:32 AM

 x • Acknowledgments

(Johannesburg: Perskor, 1976). The following have been reproduced by

kind permission of NB Publishers: from Tales of the Trickster Boy, by
Jack Cope (Cape Town: Tafelberg, 1990); Not So Fast, Songololo, by Niki
Daly (Cape Town: Human & Rousseau, 1985); and The White Arrow, by
Pieter Grobbelaar (Cape Town: Tafelberg, 1974).

RT6766X_C000.indd x 8/3/06 10:30:33 AM

 INTRODUCTION

In a continent where national borders were arbitrarily created by colo-

nial powers and colonists in the nineteenth century, in a country in
which literary histories that seek a grand narrative of national emergence
have been discredited, in the twenty-first century, when globalization
is making the concept of the nation state increasingly problematic, the
use of the term “national character” in a new book needs explanation.
When Nigerian Nobel laureate Wole Soyinka visited South Africa
in July 2005, he replied to a question about divided societies, “There
will always be differences within society. There can be several national
characters, within one nation, that sometimes seem to be at war with
one another.” South Africa, he said, was handling this multiplicity well.1
Participants from several African countries at a writers’ conference in
Pretoria in 2003 were adamant that to try to define a national literature
was a false problem, and that “national consciousness” was a roman-
tic, poetic notion. Problems that writers encountered, they said, were
the problems of writers, not Africans — blacks or whites. National con-
sciousness was a jigsaw puzzle, an ongoing project of liberation. They
warned against chauvinism, saying that what was important was that
writers should voice their experiences.2
Most children’s books in South Africa have been written by white peo-
ple in English or Afrikaans, with relatively few by black writers. A sig-
nificant proportion of them are versions of indigenous folktales. Some are
written in the languages of black South Africans, and some that were
written by whites have also been translated into these languages.
In this book I consider only children’s books written in English.
Following Soyinka and the writers at the conference, I regard them as

xi

RT6766X_C000.indd xi 8/3/06 11:11:46 AM

 xii • Introduction

simply some literary versions of what it was or is like to live in South

Africa and be a South African.
In my search for national character in English-language children’s
books, I go back to the earliest written by South Africans, beginning
with Mrs. Mary Carey-Hobson’s The Farm in the Karoo (1883)3 but really
taking off in the 1890s, and I give considerable space to those published
up to the 1950s. I do this deliberately, because until recently it was com-
mon to read or hear that almost no English-language children’s books
had been published in South Africa until after the Second World War.
Since I wrote in Children of the Sun in 1993, “We are not yet ready
for a critical history — a complete survey — of South African children’s
literature in English, for we have too few critical signposts,”4 a number
of scholars have worked on documentation and historical and critical
studies, there have been many exhibitions that have entailed a criti-
cal selection and a recent book on Afrikaans children’s literature has
provided a much-needed source for comparison and explication.5 Book
illustrators and picture books have been particularly well attended to.
Critical studies of young adult fiction have concentrated on its political
content from the 1970s onward, during the last years of apartheid and
the country’s transition to democracy. Studies of adult South African
literature provide a further frame of reference for the study of juvenile
literature. These developments in scholarship have freed me from the
expectation to be comprehensive in the present book, so that in the
limited space available I can explore some byways and topics that have
not received much attention.
Cape Town, Johannesburg, Durban, Bloemfontein and Pretoria
are the cities that nurtured the publication of children’s literature in
English in the first half of the twentieth century, being the home of
publishers such as Juta, Maskew Miller, Voortrekker Pers, Knox, A.C.
White, van Schaik, Afrikaanse Pers-Boekhandel, Unie-Volkspers and
many small presses now forgotten. Far less English literature would
have appeared if it had not been for Afrikaans publishers, who were the
strongest in the country because they were community driven and were
often subvented by the government. Translating books from English
into Afrikaans and vice versa has long been a lifesaver for children’s
books in this country, with translations into other African languages
joining them in recent years, adding to their economic viability.
Some of the earliest South African children’s literature appeared in
English-language papers in the late nineteenth century at the same time
the magazine Ons Klyntji was pioneering writing for children in Afri-
kaans. Much is owed to the newspapers and magazines which, until
the 1950s, published children’s stories and poems, many of which were

RT6766X_C000.indd xii 8/3/06 10:30:33 AM

 Introduction • xiii

republished in book form. Their names form an honorable roll call:

Cape Times, The State, The Argus, The Star, Rand Daily Mail, Standard
and West Rand Review, Sunday Express, Natal Advertiser, Sunday Times,
Advertiser, The South African Woman, The Capetonian, Diamond Fields
Advertiser, The Outspan. The South African Broadcasting Corpora-
tion ran children’s programs and serials that first broadcast material
that was later published. No doubt the very existence of these channels
served as an incentive for people to try their hands at writing.
The books were often illustrated by well-known artists, some of
them associated with public projects or the popular art of their day that
embodied the essence of white South African culture: Cythna Letty, the
botanical artist who later designed the flower motifs for the country’s
first decimal coins (see Figure 5); wild-life artists C.T. Astley Maberly
and Hilda Stevenson-Hamilton; Sydney Carter, popular artist of typical
South African landscapes, especially his bluegum trees; Ernest Ullman,
sculptor and painter of art works for public buildings such as the foyer
of Auden House, headquarters of the South African Institute of Race
Relations; Ivan Mitford-Barberton, sculptor of public works such as the
monument to the 1820 settlers in Grahamstown and the statue of Jan
Smuts in Adderley Street, Cape Town; Walter Battiss, innovator and
enfant terrible of the art scene for years, who gave respectability to the
rock art of the San; Townley Johnson, an artist who was also well known
for his copies of San rock paintings; and Dorelle, artist of the covers of
the books of Lawrence Green, the prolific writer of popular books on
the history, people and places of the country. Jan Juta, son of the Judge
President of the Cape, Sir Henry Juta — both of whom wrote a children’s
book — was a prominent artist whose most famous murals were those
for South Africa House in London and the Cunard liner Queen Mary.
Sima Eliovson, popular author and illustrator of books on wild flowers
and gardens, wrote and illustrated her own children’s picture book.
Many of the illustrators also have a reputation as artists in their own
right, among the significant ones being Gerard Bhengu, the pioneer
black artist of traditional rural domestic life whose reputation is greatly
respected today; Frans Claerhout, a Roman Catholic priest of Flemish
origin, known for his expressionist and naive paintings, murals and
stained glass windows featuring African people. Azaria Mbatha, famous
for his linocuts (see Figure 6), and Durant Sihlali, a founder member of
the Fuba Academy for training black artists, have both had their work
exhibited in many countries overseas. In recent years, children’s book
illustration and picture books have been dominated by professional
illustrators whose work can be found in books of all languages.

RT6766X_C000.indd xiii 8/3/06 10:30:33 AM

 xiv • Introduction

As if all this South African background were not enough, from the
nineteenth century until the present, the peritexts of South African
books are packed with background information and messages from
clergymen and politicians substantiating their authenticity as truly
South African products.
In the first half of the twentieth century, prefaces were provided by
people such as the bishop who signed himself “Arthur Johannesburg.”
Since the Second World War, writers, illustrators and publishers have
been far less homogeneous, but the hankering after authenticity con-
tinues. Black writers have assured us that they heard their traditional
tales from their grandmothers; white retellers of indigenous folktales
have invoked Alan Paton, Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Archbishop Des-
mond Tutu to vouch for their authenticity, and the publisher of the nov-
elist Jane Rosenthal recently assured readers that she is “a South African
with, as she puts it, ‘ancestors born, married and buried in dorps from
Jo’burg to Cape Town’.”6 Perhaps in the twenty-first century this linger-
ing insecurity will pass away, and South Africans will write and publish
without any need to defend themselves.
In the 1920s the prominent Cape Town publishing house of Juta,
which concentrated on educational books, published a series of story-
books for young children called Juta’s Juvenile Library. The title page
for each book was decorated with the same design of a frame of pictures
that provides a template for the literary expression of national character
by white English-speaking writers for children in the first half of the
twentieth century. (See Figure 1)
The motifs of the frame are a combination of European and African
elements. Three of the four corner ones are European: an old woman in
archaic mobcap and shawl, telling stories to children at her feet before
a hearth; a mythical, serpentlike monster; and a faun. In the bottom
center is the radiating sun rising behind a range of hills.
The last two of these images are among the popular international design
motifs of the 1920s that Bevis Hillier identifies in The Style of the Century.7
After mentioning, among others, the faun, Hillier goes on, “And above all
the sun-ray, which appeared on almost anything from gramophone needle
boxes to suburban garden gates. This last motif no doubt had its origins in
the sun-bathing, sun-worshipping craze which began in the early 1920s ...
but the motif came to have a wider, more political symbolism. It was the
symbol of New Dawns (whether fascist or communist), and also evokes
worthy 1930s hikers, the gambolling nordic nudes at Hitler Youth camps,
and the Nazi Strength through Joy movement” (Hillier, 90).
South Africa shared in the universal spirit of the age — it had its share
of Nazi sympathizers — but it also naturalized this image: the sunburst

RT6766X_C000.indd xiv 8/3/06 10:30:34 AM

 Introduction • xv

1 Title page from The Fairies in the Mealie Patch by G.M. Rogers and title page design for the
Juta’s Juvenile Library series (Cape Town: Juta, 192-), n.p.

RT6766X_C000.indd xv 8/3/06 10:30:34 AM

 xvi • Introduction

was the logo for the popular Sunrise toffees, it was part of the design for
a postage stamp commemorating the silver jubilee of Union in 1935 in
which rays radiate from the head of the King, and it was incorporated
in garden gates, burglar guards and window and glass door frames. The
Afrikaans publishing house HAUM published a series of Afrikaans
school readers for many years called the Dagbreek (“daybreak”) series,
which featured a full-page black-and-red picture on the cover of the
radiating sun rising over the veld.
The fourth corner picture in the Juta frame shows a slave and a slave
bell in front of a Cape Dutch house. The building, in the distinct “Cape
Dutch” vernacular architectural tradition, gives prominence to the
Western Cape and Cape Town, the “Mother City,” as the home of Juta
and South African white culture. Down each side is a small selection
of some wild animals of Africa: only two of what the modern tour-
ist industry has decided are the “Big Five,” namely lions (shown twice)
and an elephant; the colorful giraffe and zebra; an antelope; a monkey
to suggest mischief, though it is not a very common animal in South
African stories; and a python crushing a buck, suggesting the sensational
animal world of wildest Africa. None of the birds or smaller animals
that feature so frequently in South African stories are included. Most
markedly, no Africans are to be seen in the entire design.
These motifs, the themes that they represent, and the gaps and
silences between them, are recurrent reference points in this book, not
only for the literature of the first half of the twentieth century but to the
present day.
I look at children’s and young adult literature in relation to the physi-
cal country, its landscapes, flora and fauna and economic exploitation;
books and authors that public opinion has decided are important or
famous; the past, national symbols and myths; patterns of possession of
the land, domicile and population movement; oral and written literary
traditions; architecture, towns and cities; material culture; the symbol-
ism of cultural identity; schooling, books and the arts.
Of course, much of the literature that I am looking at is slight. The
books were written for little children or some vaguely conceived young
readership. Usually they were written for fun and entertainment, and
they were often badly written by unskilled writers and crudely illus-
trated. Many are ideologically naive. Whether nonfiction or fiction,
many have an obvious didactic purpose. Whatever their quality, they
are the record of how, from the end of the nineteenth century to the
beginning of the twenty-first century, certain individuals conveyed in
writing and illustration to young readers their interpretation of life in
a complex society.

RT6766X_C000.indd Sec1:xvi 8/3/06 10:31:05 AM

 SERIES EDITOR’S FOREWORD

Dedicated to furthering original research in children’s literature and

culture, the Children’s Literature and Culture series includes mono-
graphs on individual authors and illustrators, historical examinations
of different periods, literary analyses of genres and comparative studies
on literature and the mass media. The series is international in scope
and is intended to encourage innovative research in children’s litera-
ture with a focus on interdisciplinary methodology.
Children’s literature and culture are understood in the broadest
sense of the term “children” to encompass the period of childhood up
through adolescence. Because the notion of childhood has changed so
much since the origination of children’s literature, this Routledge series
is particularly concerned with transformations in children’s culture and
how they have affected the representation and socialization of children.
While the emphasis of the series is on children’s literature, all types
of studies that deal with children’s radio, fi lm, television and art are
included in an endeavor to grasp the aesthetics and values of children’s
culture. Not only have there been momentous changes in children’s
culture in the last fift y years, but there have been radical shifts in the
scholarship that deals with these changes. In this regard, the goal of the
Children’s Literature and Culture series is to enhance research in this
field and, at the same time, point to new directions that bring together
the best scholarly work throughout the world.

Jack Zipes

xvii

RT6766X_C000.indd Sec1:xvii 8/3/06 10:31:05 AM

RT6766X_C000.indd xviii 8/3/06 10:31:06 AM
 1
COUNTRY CHILDREN

In 1926, Annette Joelson opened a story for children, “In the very heart
of the Cape Karoo, which again is the very heart of South Africa, where
the sunshine is ever bright and warm, and skies are always blue, there
lived a little girl in a very big farm-house, on a very, very big farm.”1
Until late in the twentieth century, there were only two significant
contenders for the spiritual heartland of English-speaking white South
Africans: the Karoo, a semidesert region of plains and flat-topped hills
covering most of central South Africa, and the bushveld of the north
and northeast. Early British writers, relying on their reading, set their
adventures in the Karoo. Typically, in 1856 Thomas Mayne Reid wrote
The Bush Boys; or, The History and Adventures of a Cape Farmer and his
Family in the Wild Karoos of Southern Africa.2 A century later, its repu-
tation continued in England: an English writer, Jane Shaw, who sends
an English family to settle in Johannesburg in Venture to South Africa
(1960), has them drive from Cape Town through “the famous Karoo.”3
The South African children’s writers who took over from the British
turned the Karoo, or more broadly the wide open veld, with its blazing
sky, its droughts, its windmills, its thunderstorms and its veld fires, from
a setting into a mystic homeland. The very first full-length children’s
novel written by a South African was called The Farm in the Karoo
(1883).4 Mabel Waugh, author of Verses for Tiny South Africans (1923),
apostrophizes it in “The Karroo” (using an alternative spelling):
Great, big, wide Karroo,
How did you get rolled out so flat…
A farm, a kopje, or a windmill
Are the only things higher at all…

RT6766X_C001.indd 1 7/12/06 7:34:43 PM

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