Special Report: China's military parade highlights

strides towards modernisation

Date Posted: 03-Sep-2025

Author: Jon Grevatt, Bangkok Ridzwan Rahmat, Singapore Akhil Kadidal, Bangalore Oishee
Majumdar, Bangalore Sohini Mandal, Bangalore

Publication: Jane's Defence Weekly

Key points
 China holds massive military parade in Beijing, showcasing new equipment and capabilities
 Displayed new systems reflect China's focus on boosting power projection and defending
claimed territory

UPDATED

The People's Liberation Army (PLA) displayed a series of new weapon systems at a large-scale
military parade in Beijing on 3 September to mark the 80th anniversary of the end of the Second
World War.

The parade, which featured many systems previously not shown in public, took place along
Chang'an Avenue, a central thoroughfare that passes Tiananmen Square and the entrance to the
Forbidden City.

Troops and equipment from the PLA's Ground Force (PLAGF), Navy (PLAN), Air Force
(PLAAF), and Rocket Force (PLARF) took part in the event and were inspected by Chinese
President Xi Jinping. The event was attended by dozens of heads of state including Russia's
President Vladimir Putin and Kim Jong-un, the leader of North Korea.

Some of the most notable new systems on display included the DF-61 intercontinental ballistic
missile (ICBM), the DF-31BJ ICBM, which is likely an improved variant of the DF-31 ICBM, and
a new extra-large unmanned underwater vehicle (XLUUV) that can likely be deployed for a
spectrum of underwater warfare missions.

Other prominent systems included a new submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM), several
new types of anti-ship missiles that are likely faster and more capable than their predecessors, and a
new ship-based laser weapon.

In addition, the parade featured new main battle tanks (MBTs) and infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs)
as well as several types of new air-defence systems, including the HQ-29, which is claimed as
China's largest surface-to-air missile (SAM) system.

The focus in the air domain was unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Five new UAVs were identified
at the parade, including several that are likely to be operated in manned-unmanned teaming (MUM-
T) operations as collaborative combat aircraft (CCA).
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Developments were also evident in terms of Chinese C4ISR (command, control, communications,
computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance). Such capabilities included new radar
systems and counter-unmanned aircraft systems (C-UASs).

ICBMs

DF-61

The DF-61 ICBM seen at China's military parade on 3 September. (Greg Baker/AFP via Getty
Images)
2084418

The DF-61 appears to be a successor to the DF-41 ICBM that was unveiled at the 2019 Victory
Day parade. Like the DF-41, the DF-61 is road-mobile and launched from a large transporter-
erector-launcher (TEL) platform with 16 wheels, suggesting an intention for mobility and
concealment.

Given its size, the DF-61 will likely be able to carry up to 12 nuclear warheads, probably
configured as multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles (MIRVs). This capability would
allow the DF-61 to strike multiple targets across vast distances, enhancing its deterrence value and
strategic flexibility.

The range of the DF-61 is estimated to be about 18,000 km, which would make it one of the
longest-range ICBMs in the world, capable of striking at targets in the continental US.

Strategically, the DF-61 fits into China's broader effort to modernise and diversify its nuclear
arsenal and provides Beijing with a more robust second-strike capability and a wider range of
options across the nuclear escalation ladder.

DF-31BJ

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The new DF-31BJ ICBM likely has a range of about 13,000 km. (Greg Baker/AFP via Getty
Images)
2084417

Also making its debut at the parade was the latest variant in China's long-standing DF-31 ICBM
series, known as the DF-31BJ. Specific technical details about the DF-31BJ remain unknown, but
its appearance alongside the DF-61 ICBM suggests it incorporates several key advancements over
its predecessors. These include improvements in survivability and launch readiness.

The BJ variant is expected to feature faster set-up and launch times, possibly enabled by
streamlined launch protocols that build upon previous launch events. The DF-31BJ may also be a
beneficiary of China's recent progress in hypersonic glide vehicle technology, which could allow it
to deliver warheads at extreme speeds and via unpredictable trajectories.

In terms of payload, earlier DF-31 variants were capable of carrying either a single high-yield
warhead or MIRVs. The DF-31BJ is likely to retain or expand this MIRV capability, potentially
integrating more sophisticated penetration aids and decoys to defeat missile defence systems.

Its range is presumed to be at least comparable with the DF-31AG's estimated 11,200–13,000 km,
allowing it to target most of the continental US and other strategic locations globally.

SLBM

JL-3

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The new JL-3 SLBM is believed to be deployed aboard China's Type 094 (Jin)-class nuclear-
powered submarines. (Pedro Pardo/AFP via Getty Images)
2084415

While it was known to be in development since at least 2018 and reportedly entered service in
2022, the existence of the JL-3 SLBM remained largely unconfirmed until the parade on 3
September.

The JL-3 is a solid-fuel missile developed to replace the JL-2 SLBM, and it is believed to be
deployed aboard the PLAN's Type 094 (Jin)-class nuclear-powered submarines.

The weapon is estimated to have a range of at least 10,000 km, and this allows China's Type 094
submarines to strike targets across the continental US from launch positions within Chinese coastal
waters, such as the South China Sea or Bohai Gulf, greatly improving survivability and strategic
flexibility.

In terms of payload, the JL-3 is believed to carry MIRVs, and it is likely configured to
accommodate up to three nuclear warheads.

Anti-ship missiles

YJ-15

In addition to the ICBMs and the JL-3 SLBM, China unveiled several new anti-ship missiles that
are capable of attaining higher maximum speeds and carrying larger payloads. Among these is the
YJ-15, which appears to be a ramjet-powered cruise missile, bearing a resemblance to the earlier
YJ-12 that is known for its supersonic speed and versatility in launch platforms, including aircraft,
ships, and ground-based systems.

The YJ-15's streamlined body and likely airbreathing propulsion suggest it is optimised for high-
speed, low-altitude flight, making it well-suited for sea-skimming flight profiles and evading close-
in weapon systems.

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Its design implies a primary role as an anti-ship missile, although a secondary land-attack capability
cannot be ruled out, especially given China's history of dual-role cruise missile development.

YJ-17

In contrast, the YJ-17 stands out for its sharply pointed nose and lack of a visible air intake,
characteristics that suggest it may be a hypersonic weapon.

The shaping of the nose is consistent with a ‘waverider configuration', a design that uses
shockwaves generated during hypersonic flight to maintain lift and stability.

This missile may either be a true airbreathing hypersonic cruise missile or a boost-glide vehicle, the
latter being a type of unpowered payload that detaches from a booster and glides at hypersonic
speeds towards its target.

If the YJ-17 is indeed a boost-glide system, it would be capable of highly manoeuvrable,

unpredictable flightpaths, complicating interception by missile defence systems.

YJ-19

Meanwhile, the YJ-19 features a prominent air intake beneath its nose, clearly indicating the
presence of a ramjet or scramjet propulsion system.

This design choice aligns it with other high-supersonic or hypersonic cruise missiles, suggesting it
is intended for rapid strike missions against high-value or time-sensitive targets.

The visible intake and aerodynamic shaping point to sustained high-speed flight, likely in the Mach
3 to Mach 5 range, with a probable focus on maritime or land-based targets.

YJ-20

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China's YJ-20 anti-ship missile. (Janes)
2024268

The YJ-20 diverges from the other anti-ship missiles revealed with its more traditional ballistic
missile appearance. It is believed to be a multistage missile, possibly related to a system previously
seen launched from a Type 055 destroyer and sometimes referred to as the YJ-21. Its configuration
suggests it could be either a ship-launched ballistic missile or SLBM, potentially with anti-ship or
land-attack roles.

Naval laser weapon

The LY-1 laser system is intended to be fitted onto China's aircraft carriers. (Lintao Zhang/Getty
Images)
2084419

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The PLA also displayed the LY-1 laser weapon system. China's state-run China Global Television
Network (CGTN) said the LY-1 has been designed for integration onto the PLAN's aircraft carriers.

China's state-owned Global Times newspaper also reported, “As a type of laser weapon, the LY-1
can also effectively avoid the problem of time lag between the target lock-on of shipborne fire-
control radar (FCR) and the actual firing of traditional air-defence weapons. It also effectively
avoids the problem of [the] large dispersion ratio of traditional shipborne close-in guns.”

LY-1 will complement other shipborne air-defence systems including China's new HQ-16C and
HHQ-9C SAMs, the latter of which was displayed at the parade.

Global Times said the HHQ-9C will be primarily used to counter high-altitude and high-speed anti-
ship weapons such as ballistic missiles. The HQ-16C is smaller in size than the HHQ-9C, and can
be loaded into vertical launch systems of frigates. It can be deployed to intercept subsonic and
supersonic anti-ship cruise missiles, Global Times added.

XLUUVs

AJX002

China's AJX002 XLUUV will likely be deployed for reconnaissance, minelaying, anti-submarine
warfare, and potentially strike missions. (Janes)
2024269

Also making its debut at the parade was the AJX002 XLUUV. It is approximately 18–20 m in
length and 1–1.5 m in diameter, with a torpedo-like shape and pumpjet propulsion.

Its hull features lifting lugs, indicating that it is designed for land-based crane deployment and
possibly modular payloads, suggesting operational flexibility and ease of maintenance.

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While its exact mission profile remains unclear, it will likely be deployed by China for a range of
roles including reconnaissance, minelaying, anti-submarine warfare, and potentially even strike
missions.

Its design bears some resemblance to Russia's Poseidon nuclear-powered torpedo, although there is
no confirmed indication that the AJX002 is similarly powered.

Strategically, the AJX002 adds a new layer to China's maritime deterrence posture. By deploying
autonomous underwater systems capable of long-endurance missions, Beijing could complicate US
and allied naval planning in the Indo-Pacific. These XLUUVs can operate stealthily in contested
waters with reduced risk to personnel, conduct surveillance of critical sea lanes, or threaten high-
value naval assets.

Armoured vehicles

The parade also featured newly developed MBTs and IFVs. One of these new MBTs, designated
Type-99B, is an upgraded version of the baseline Type-99 platform, which likely features enhanced
firepower and protection. The Type-99 is a family of third-generation MBTs, which follow the
general layout of Russian T-72 tanks. The tank features a box-shaped hull with a steep glacis and
belly plate, creating an angular nose. There are six unevenly spaced roadwheels per side with an
idler to the front and a drive sprocket to the rear.

The previous variant, known as Type-99A, features a 125 mm main gun and weighs approximately
55 tonnes. Selected for its increased survivability and mobility, the Type-99A variant of the family
is the primary MBT platform for elite PLAGF armoured units.

China's new Type-99B MBT. (Pedro Pardo/AFP via Getty Images)

2084427

China also debuted its Type-100 family of vehicles, which include a medium MBT and an
armoured support vehicle. Global Times reported that the Type-100 family features a reactive
armour in addition to its active protection system (APS).

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The APS appears to be an upgraded version of Norinco's GL6 and features countermeasures
capable of defeating various anti-tank threats. Global Times reported that the remote-controlled
weapon system (RCWS) and the APS fitted to the Type-100 vehicles are jointly capable of
countering anti-tank and aerial threats such as UAVs.

According to Global Times , the Type-100 vehicles feature several photoelectric sensors fitted to
the turret and the chassis. The Type-100 IFV is capable of mounting and deploying a rotor-wing
UAV for reconnaissance and strike missions. The UAV is mounted on the rear side of the IFV.

Global Times reported that Type-100 vehicle operators were seen wearing a new augmented reality
(AR) goggle, which is capable of 360° spatial awareness enhanced through the display of real-time
driving data and reconnaissance imagery.

PLA personnel were also seen at the parade carrying China South Industries Group Corporation's
(CSGC's) upgraded 5.8×42 mm QBZ191 assault rifle. The rifle, which was seen first at the
National Day parade in 2019, was fitted with attached optical sights.

Air defence

China displayed several air-defence weapons at the parade, the most prominent of which included
the Hong Qi (HQ) family of SAMs.

The state-owned China Daily newspaper described the HQ-29 anti-ballistic missile as the largest
of its kind developed by China. (Greg Baker/AFP via Getty Images)
2084428

Seen for the first time were the HQ-20 and HQ-22A anti-aircraft missile systems and the HQ-29
anti-ballistic missile interceptor. Other missiles in the HQ family of SAMs displayed included
HQ-9C, HQ-11, and HQ-19.

According to Global Times , the HQ-11, the HQ-20, and the HQ-22A are designed to counter aerial
targets such as fixed-wing aircraft, UAVs, and conventional cruise missiles. The missiles are
developed to “achieve efficient and low-cost interception”, it said.

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Global Times said the HQ-9C and the HQ-19 are capable of anti-ballistic interception. The HQ-9C
is capable of terminal low-altitude interception of medium- and short-range ballistic missiles. The
HQ-19 is an enhanced variant of the HQ-9C, which is capable of high-altitude interception
missions.

State-owned newspaper China Daily reported that the HQ-29 is the “largest” SAM system
developed by China, capable of intercepting ballistic missiles outside the Earth's atmosphere. Two
HQ-29 missiles were seen mounted on a 12×12 launcher vehicle.

In addition to the HQ family of missiles, China displayed its CJ-1000 land-based cruise missile.
According to Global Times , this is an enhanced variant of the CJ-100 supersonic cruise missile
system unveiled in 2019. The CJ-1000 missile is likely hypersonic. At the parade, two CJ-1000
missiles were mounted on a 10×10 launcher vehicle.

The CJ-1000 hypersonic cruise missile. (Lintao Zhang/Getty Images)

2084410

During the parade, a layered short-range air-defence system featuring a combination of soft-kill and
hard-kill C-UAV capabilities, mounted on a 6×6 truck chassis, was seen. The system features
sensors, jammers, electronic warfare (EW) capabilities, a 30 mm cannon, and launcher pods for 24
interceptor projectiles.

Manned aviation

In addition to displaying a range of new unmanned capabilities during the parade, China
simultaneously confirmed that it has also inducted several manned aircraft that were previously in
development and testing.

This includes a new armed assault variant of China's Harbin Z-20 utility helicopter, which broke
cover in 2024. The aircraft appears to now be operational with the PLAGF, with the service
deploying at least seven helicopters over the parade area.

Serial numbers on the helicopters correspond with the 161st Air Assault Brigade of the 83rd Group
Army at Xinxiang city. The helicopters were also shown armed with a weapons payload on stub
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wings, comprising Blue Arrow 7 (AKD-10) air-launched anti-tank missiles and AKD-9 air-to-
surface missiles.

The helicopters also had upward-facing engine exhausts, a feature not seen on the armed variant of
the helicopter when it was first unveiled in 2024.

A Shaanxi Y-9LG special missions aircraft (left) of the PLAAF flies with Shenyang J-16 fighter
aircraft over Tiananmen Square on 3 September in Beijing. (Fred Lee/Getty Images)
2084429

The PLAAF also flew a trio of new Xi'an Y-20B transports in service colours. The variant's ‘B'
designation, which the Chinese government officially confirmed during the parade, is due to the
integration of the new, domestically developed, high-bypass-ratio WS20 engine with the airframe.
The older Y-20A aircraft, which also participated in the parade, are powered by Russian-origin 117
kN Aviadvigatel D-30KP II Series turbofan engines.

An announcer introduced the Y-20B as having a longer range and capable of carrying a heavy load
at high speed. The aircraft has performed “major tasks both at home and abroad and has a long-
range strategic delivery capability”, the announcer said.

The PLAAF also flew several Chengdu J-20A aircraft and at least two Shenyang J-35A stealth
aircraft. The J-20A aircraft is an improved version of the baseline J-20, powered by two
domestically developed WS15 engines. Global Times reported that the J-20A incorporates new
“modifications” to the rear of the pilot's cockpit to reduce air resistance and improve supersonic
flight.

At least one two-seat J-20S also participated in the parade. Developed to operate as a fifth-
generation tactical command-and-control (C2) platform, the J-20S could be used to command loyal
wingmen. This supports China's long-term goal to enhance combat operations through MUM-T.

Collaborative combat aircraft

China displayed at least seven different types of UAVs during the parade, five of which were seen
publicly for the first time.
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One of the CCA aircraft displayed at the parade was this UAV, which partly resembles the Kratos
XQ-58 Valkyrie. (Greg Baker/AFP via Getty Images)
2084422

Four of the UAVs could have MUM-T roles as CCA, Janes assesses. This includes two previously
unknown tailless UAVs, which appeared to have similar external dimensions, although they
differed slightly in design. According to Global Times , the two UAVs have been developed for air
superiority operations.

Video imagery taken at the parade show that both the tailless UAVs are equipped with all-moving
wingtips and powered by a single engine. However, one of the UAVs had lambda wings (while the
other had diamond-shaped wings).

An unidentified tailless UAV is displayed at the parade. (Lintao Zhang/Getty Images)

2084425

The lambda-winged CCA was also equipped with caret-shaped engine intakes. It was unclear from
video footage, however, if the aircraft is equipped with an internal weapons bay. In contrast, the
second tailless CCA was shown to possess an internal weapons bay and diverterless supersonic

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intakes (DSIs), plus an electro-optical targeting system (EOTS) under the nose.

The other two CCA aircraft presented at the parade were smaller platforms. Both were single-
engine aircraft. One appeared to be similar in design to the US-origin Kratos XQ-58 Valkyrie, but
with a more forward-positioned dorsal engine intake.

The UAV was equipped with sweptwings and canted tailfins. In contrast, the fourth UAV had
diamond-shaped wings, canted tailfins, and a dorsal engine intake positioned near the upper midriff
of the aircraft. Both aircraft were shown equipped with an internal weapons bay.

According to Global Times , “some of the UAVs showcased at the parade … embody new
concepts” capable of overturning “existing air combat scenarios”.

Other unmanned aircraft

China also displayed a new rotary-wing UAV for naval operations. Markings on the aircraft
indicate that it is in service with the PLAN.

An unmanned Chinese helicopter, identified as the AVIC AR-2000, is displayed in the parade.
(Pedro Pardo/AFP via Getty Images)
2084424

Janes assesses that the UAV is the production variant of the Aviation Industry Corporation of
China's (AVIC's) AR-2000 rotary-wing UAV concept, which was under development by China's
602nd Aircraft Design Institute for the PLAN.

Equipped with an electro-optic (EO) turret and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) under the nose, the
helicopter could be operated from the PLAN's Type 075 landing helicopter dock (LHD) and the
Renhai (Type 055)-class cruiser.

China's Hongdu Gongji-11 (Attack-11 or GJ-11) low-observable UAV also made an appearance
during the parade. Marked with a ‘21' on its dorsal spine, the aircraft was shown to have folding
wings for carrierborne operations.

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Janes has previously reported that the UAV can be operated from China's Type 076 LHD
amphibious assault ship. However, it is unclear if the UAV will also be capable of catapult-assisted
take-off but arrested recovery (CATOBAR) operations on China's third aircraft carrier, the Fujian.

The UAV was in a wheels-up position during the parade, with the landing gear retracted into the
hull. The UAV was instead propped up on a brace.

A new variant of AVIC's new Wing Loong family of UAVs was also presented at the parade.
Assessments by Janes suggest that it is the Wing Loong-IID variant, which was unveiled at
Airshow China 2024.

A UAV, identified as the AVIC Wing Loong-IID, is displayed with air-launched weapons and EW
equipment during the parade. (Lintao Zhang/Getty Images)
2084420

C4ISR

Radars

The PLA also displayed new radars, C-UASs, and a high-powered microwave (HPM) weapon
system.

Four types of recently inducted radars were seen in the parade, including an unnamed high-mobility
metre-wave air surveillance radar, the 780 target designator radar, a radar that Janes analysis
suggests is likely the YLC-2E radar, and a radar that closely resembles the YLC-12 system. The
first three of these radars were unveiled by China Electronics Technology Group Corporation
(CETC) at the Airshow China exhibition in November 2024.

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A high-mobility metre-wave air surveillance radar on display at Airshow China 2024. (Janes/Sam
Wise)
2068128

CGTN reported these new radars are part of the PLA's “air-defence and anti-missile operations
group”.

The design of the high-mobility metre-wave air surveillance radar suggests that the system can be
employed for early warning and long-range detection of stealth aircraft and missiles. The radar's
antenna comprises an array of dipoles.

The 780 target designator radar has been described by the CETC as a fourth-generation phased-
array radar. Janes analysis suggests it is an active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar. The
780 is used in conjunction with the 610A mobile radar to support the PLAAF's HQ-19 SAM
system, which was also unveiled at Airshow China 2024.

The YLC-2E has been described by Global Times as an S-band radar that incorporates “new-
generation semiconductors and modularisation” to detect stealth aircraft with low radar cross-
section (RCS). According to Global Times , YLC-2E's detection range is similar to that of
conventional frequency band anti-stealth radars, such as the CETC's YLC-8B and YLC-8E radars.
According to Janes data, YLC-8B has a detection range of more than 550 km for combat aircraft,
about 350 km for low-observable targets, and more than 700 km for inbound missile threats. The
YLC-8E is an upgraded version of the YLC-8B.

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are not warranted, nor are the opinions and analyses which are based upon it, and to the extent permitted by law, Jane’s shall not
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contained herein.
A Type 780 target designation radar on display at Airshow China 2024. (Janes/Sam Wise)
2068131

According to Janes C4ISR & Mission Systems: Land , YLC-12 is a medium/low-altitude 3D

multifunctional C-band AESA radar with an operating frequency of 4–8 GHz. It has been designed
to detect low-flying aerial threats such as UAVs. The radar antenna is mounted on a telescopic
mast, which can be extended up to a height of 18 m for operation in wooded and urban areas for
longer-range coverage.

C-UASs

The PLA also showcased three types of C-UASs at the parade, all of which feature soft-kill and
hard-kill capabilities.

The first C-UAS features a low-power laser with a likely range of about 1 km for close-range
engagement with targets, very-high-frequency (VHF) and ultra-high-frequency (UHF)
communications systems, a short-range radar, cameras, and a passive detection system to detect
radio frequency (RF) signals emitted by UAVs. Four units of this system were showcased.

The second C-UAS features a radar for detecting threats, an FCR, an electro-optic/infrared (EO/IR)
sensor, HF communications systems, launchers for small short-range projectiles that can eliminate
targets, a machine gun, and smoke grenade launchers. Four units of this C-UAS were displayed.

The third C-UAS is equipped with a four-sided planar-array radar for 360° coverage, an EO/IR
sensor, a passive detection system, V/UHF communications systems, and 24 launchers. A Global
Times report published after the parade said this C-UAS is particularly suitable for intercepting
loitering munitions and multirotor UAVs. Three units of this C-UAS were displayed.
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without prior written consent, with the exception of any internal client distribution as may be permitted in the license agreement
between client and Jane’s. Content reproduced or redistributed with Jane’s permission must display Jane’s legal notices and
attributions of authorship. The information contained herein is from sources considered reliable but its accuracy and completeness
are not warranted, nor are the opinions and analyses which are based upon it, and to the extent permitted by law, Jane’s shall not
be liable for any errors or omissions or any loss, damage or expense incurred by reliance on information or any statement
contained herein.
In addition to these C-UASs, the PLA displayed an HPM that can counter UAV threats by
destroying their electronic components.

The HPM has a detection radar on top of a jammer antenna array. The detection radar can rotate
independently. Janes analysis of the HPM's design indicates that it can neutralise multiple targets
simultaneously with electronic beam-steering. Three units of this HPM were showcased.

This special report includes assessments from Janes analysts including Akshay Arkane, Rakend P,
Ajay Shankar Pandey, Vishal Sengupta, Amit Kalra, and Prasobh Narayanan.

Further analysis and assessment online

Analysis: China reveals future helicopter projects

China publishes footage of long-range ICBM test

Feature: China evolves amphibious capabilities with regional implications

Analysis

Many of the new systems displayed by China in its 3 September parade continue the trajectory of
China's military modernisation over the past two decades.

An important focus has long been anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) and the ability to develop strong
capability to defend claimed territory from US and allied forces. That claimed territory stretches
across the Asia-Pacific and explains China's emphasis on developing anti-ship missile capability.

Similarly, China's focus on developing more potent and advanced ICBMs, SLBMs, air-defence
systems, and radars is aimed at enhancing strategic deterrence and also to serve to support another
important and related driver of modernisation – projecting and protecting China's expanding power.

Newly developed unmanned systems, perhaps launched from China's expanding naval assets, are
likewise intended to enhance this power projection/protection capability by operating alongside
manned platforms. Mobile land assets serve a similar purpose.

While the pace of China's modernisation is marked by the claimed capability of some of the new
systems displayed in the parade, the sheer growing number of these new systems is also notable.

A greater number of high-profile new systems were on display on 3 September compared with
China's last major military parade in 2019.

This could suggest that the PLA is making further progress in closing the gap between itself and the
US military. This effort is afforded the highest priority in Beijing as it strives to meet a stated target
to develop a ‘world-class' military by the late 2040s.

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without prior written consent, with the exception of any internal client distribution as may be permitted in the license agreement
between client and Jane’s. Content reproduced or redistributed with Jane’s permission must display Jane’s legal notices and
attributions of authorship. The information contained herein is from sources considered reliable but its accuracy and completeness
are not warranted, nor are the opinions and analyses which are based upon it, and to the extent permitted by law, Jane’s shall not
be liable for any errors or omissions or any loss, damage or expense incurred by reliance on information or any statement
contained herein.