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ADVANCES IN IMAGING AND
ELECTRON PHYSICS

VOLUME 118
 EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

PETER W. HAWKES
CEMESÑCentr e National de la Recherche ScientiÞque
Toulouse, France

ASSOCIATE EDITORS
BENJAMIN KAZAN
Xerox Corporation
Palo Alto Research Center
Palo Alto, California

TOM MULVEY
Department of Electronic Engineering and Applied Physics
Aston University
Birmingham, United Kingdom
 Advances in
Imaging and
Electron Physics
EDITED BY
PETER W. HAWKES
CEMESÑCentr e National de la Recherche ScientiÞque
Toulouse, France

VOLUME 118

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London Sydney Tokyo
This book is printed on acid-free paper. 
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01 02 03 04 EB 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 CONTENTS

CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
FUTURE CONTRIBUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Magnetization Transfer

JOSEPH C. McGOWAN
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
II. Magnetic Resonance Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
III. Development of Magnetization Transfer Theory . . . . . . . . . . 21
IV. Magnetization Transfer Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
V. Application in Human Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
VI. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Appendix I: Solution of the Complete Coupled Bloch Equations
for Two-Site Chemical Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Noninterferometric Phase Determination

DAVID PAGANIN AND KEITH A. NUGENT
I. Introduction and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
II. Methods of Phase Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
III. A New Approach to Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
IV. Propagation-Based Phase Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
V. Experimental Demonstrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
VI. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Recent Developments of Probes for Scanning Probe Microscopy

EGBERT OESTERSCHULZE
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
II. Atomic Force Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
III. Near-Field Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

v
vi CONTENTS

Morphological Image Enhancement and Segmentation

IVAN R. TEROL-VILLALOBOS
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
II. Some Basic Tools in Mathematical Morphology . . . . . . . . . . 210
III. Morphological Nonincreasing Filters Using Gradient Criteria
(Morphological Slope Filters) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
IV. A Sequential Family of MSFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
V. Image Segmentation using MSFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
VI. Nonlinear Multiscale Approach Using a Sequential Family of MSFs . 248
VII. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
 CONTRIBUTORS

Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authorsÕcontributions begin.

JOSEPH C. MCGOWAN (1), United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland

21402

KEITH A. NUGENT (85), School of Physics, The University of Melbourne,

Victoria 3010, Australia

EGBERT OESTERSCHULZE (129), Institute of Technical Physics, University of

Kassel, 34132 Kassel, Germany

DAVID PAGANIN (85), School of Physics, The University of Melbourne,

Victoria 3010, Australia

IVAN R. TEROL-VILLALOBOS (207), Centro de Investigacion y Desarrollo Tech-

nol«
ogico en Electroqu«õmica, Parque Technol« ogico Queretaro S/N.
Sanfandila-Pedro Escobedo.CP, 76700-APDO 064 Queretaro, Mexico

vii
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 PREFACE

The four chapters that make up this volume are all in the general area of imag-
ing and image processing. We begin with an account of magnetic resonance
imaging, which older readers will think of as nuclear magnetic resonance
imaging, and of the related technique of magnetization transfer imaging. In
this, J. C. McGowan Þrst describes in detail the physics of the magnetic res-
onance imaging process and then goes on to discuss the recently developed
technique of magnetization transfer imaging. The purpose of this is to obtain
information about the interactions between water protons, which are visible
using magnetic resonance imaging, and the protons of larger molecules that are
of physiological interest. Among the applications areas are multiple sclerosis
and other diffuse brain disorders. The chapter can be read at several levels
since it contains all the technical details that will interest the specialist and, in
parallel, a very readable commentary that can be appreciated by those from
other Þelds.
Next comes a very welcome account of the highly original work of
D. Paganin and K. A. Nugent on phase determination by noninterferometric
methods. My attention was caught by their paper in Phys. Rev. Letters in 1998,
in which their ideas on phase determination were Þrst sketched and I am de-
lighted that they have agreed to write this full account, which puts the problem
in context, explains clearly the basis of their approach, and contains much new
material. A particularly interesting feature of this work is the role occupied by
generalized radiance and the associated problems of radiometry for partially
coherent radiation (cf. L. Mandel and E. Wolf, Optical Coherence and Quan-
tum Optics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995). Both theory and
practice are examined here and this account of these subtle ideas should render
them much more accessible.
Scanning probe microscopy is still a young subject and is in rapid growth,
with continuing new developments in instrumentation and experimental tech-
niques. The chapter by E. Oesterschulze Þrst discusses developments in atomic
force microscopy and then turns to near-Þeld optics. The Þrst part covers essen-
tially the technological aspects of these microscopes; the section on near-Þeld
microscopy opens with a succinct but very clear account of far-Þeld optics,
so that we can appreciate the difference between this and the newer near-Þeld
instruments. Passive probes are then examined after which E. Oesterschulze
introduces us to light-emitting and light-detecting active probes. Altogether a
very full account of present preoccupations in this area.

ix
x PREFACE

The Þnal chapter, by I. R. Terol-Villalobos, is a new addition to the numer-

ous articles published here on aspects of mathematical morphology. Here, the
theme is selective enhancement and segmentation based on a type of gradient
Þlters, in which the gradient is the difference between the image and the same
image after erosion or dilation. After a brief introduction, in which the toggle
mappings are examined, the morphological slope Þlters are deÞned and ana-
lyzed at length. This long contribution forms a short monograph on this branch
of mathematical morphology.
I am most grateful to all the contributors to this volume for the care that they
have brought to their manuscripts and conclude with a list of surveys planned
for the next few volumes.

Peter Hawkes
 FUTURE CONTRIBUTIONS

T. Aach
Lapped transforms
G. Abbate
New developments in liquid-crystal-based photonic devices
S. Ando
Gradient operators and edge and corner detection
A. ArnŽodo,N. Decoster, P. Kestener, and S. Roux
A wavelet-based method for multifractal image analysis
D. Antzoulatos
Use of the hypermatrix
M. Barnabei and L. Montefusco
Algebraic aspects of signal and image processing
L. Bedini, E. Salerno, and A. Tonazzini (vol. 120)
Discontinuities and image restoration
C. Beeli
Structure and microscopy of quasicrystals
I. Bloch
Fuzzy distance measures in image processing
R. D. Bonetto (vol. 120)
Characterization of texture in scanning electron microscope images
G. Borgefors
Distance transforms
A. Carini, G.L. Sicuranza, and E. Mumolo
V-vector algebra and Volterra Þlters
Y. Cho
Scanning nonlinear dielectric microscopy
E. R. Davies
Mean, median, and mode Þlters
H. Delingette
Surface reconstruction based on simplex meshes

xi
xii FUTURE CONTRIBUTIONS

A. Diaspro
Two-photon excitation in microscopy
R. G. Forbes
Liquid metal ion sources
E. Fšrster and F. N. Chukhovsky
X-ray optics
A. Fox
The critical-voltage effect
L. Frank and I. MŸllerov«a
Scanning low-energy electron microscopy
A. Garcia
A brief walk through sampling theory
L. Godo & V. Torra
Aggregation operators
P. Hartel, D. Preikszas, R. Spehr, H. Mueller, and H. Rose (vol. 120)
Design of a mirror corrector for low-voltage electron microscopes
P. W. Hawkes
Electron optics and electron microscopy: conference proceedings and
abstracts as source material
M. I. Herrera
The development of electron microscopy in Spain
J. S. Hesthaven
Higher-order accuracy computational methods for time-domain
electromagnetics
K. Ishizuka
Contrast transfer and crystal images
I. P. Jones
ALCHEMI
W. S. Kerwin and J. Prince
The kriging update model
B. Kessler
Orthogonal multiwavelets
G. Kšgel
Positron microscopy
 FUTURE CONTRIBUTIONS xiii

W. Krakow
Sideband imaging
N. Krueger
The application of statistical and deterministic regularities in biological
and artiÞcial vision systems
B. Lahme
KarhunenÐLoeve decomposition
J. Marti (vol. 120)
Image segmentation
C. L. Matson
Back-propagation through turbid media
S. Mikoshiba and F. L. Curzon
Plasma displays
M. A. OÕKeefe
Electron image simulation
N. Papamarkos and A. Kesidis
The inverse Hough transform
M. G. A. Paris and G. dÕAriano
Quantum tomography
C. Passow
Geometric methods of treating energy transport phenomena
F. A. Ponce
Nitride semiconductors for high-brightness blue and green light emission
T.-C. Poon
Scanning optical holography
H. de Raedt, K. F. L. Michielsen, and J. Th. M. Hosson
Aspects of mathematical morphology
H. Rauch
The wave-particle dualism
D. Saad, R. Vicente, and A. Kabashima
Error-correcting codes
O. Scherzer
Regularization techniques
xiv FUTURE CONTRIBUTIONS

G. Schmahl
X-ray microscopy
S. Shirai
CRT gun design methods
T. Soma
Focus-deßection systems and their applications
I. Talmon
Study of complex ßuids by transmission electron microscopy
M. Tonouchi
Terahertz radiation imaging
N. M. Towghi
Ip norm optimal Þlters
T. Tsutsui and Z. Dechun
Organic electroluminescence, materials and devices
Y. Uchikawa
Electron gun optics
D. van Dyck
Very high resolution electron microscopy
J. S. Walker
Tree-adapted wavelet shrinkage
C. D. Wright and E. W. Hill
Magnetic force microscopy
F. Yang and M. Paindavoine
Pre-Þltering for pattern recognition using wavelet transforms
and neural networks
M. Yeadon
Instrumentation for surface studies
S. Zaefferer
Computer-aided crystallographic analysis in TEM
ADVANCES IN IMAGING AND
ELECTRON PHYSICS

VOLUME 118
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 ADVANCES IN IMAGING AND ELECTRON PHYSICS, VOL. 118

Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Magnetization Transfer

JOSEPH C. McGOWAN
United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland 21402

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A. Fundamentals of Magnetic Resonance Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Spin Flips and Relaxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
C. Three Fundamental Signals in Magnetic Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . 10
II. Magnetic Resonance Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
A. Field Gradients and Slice Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
B. Imaging with a Spin Echo Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
C. Contrast in the MR Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
D. Gradient Echoes and Rapid Imaging Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
III. Development of Magnetization Transfer Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
A. The Bloch Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
B. The Chemical Exchange Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
C. Investigation of Magnetic Exchange with Double Resonance . . . . . . . 24
D. Magnetization Transfer between Unresolvable Spins . . . . . . . . . . 26
E. Analytical Models for Magnetization Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
F. Analytic Solutions of Coupled Bloch Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
G. Analytic Solution of SimpliÞed Bloch Equation Sets . . . . . . . . . . 30
H. Comparison of Predicted Z-Spectra from the Complete and
SimpliÞed Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
I. Implication of the Equivalence of the Predicted Z-Spectra . . . . . . . . 31
J. Three-Site Models of Biological Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
K. Solutions of the Three-Site Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
L. Three-Site Cyclic Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
M. General Three-Site Detailed Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
N. Three-Site Exchange through an Intermediate Site . . . . . . . . . . . 37
O. Relaxation in an Exchanging System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
P. Transient Solution for Longitudinal Magnetization (Exact Solution for T1 ) . 39
Q. Approximate Solution for T1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
R. Exact Solution for T2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
S. Approximate Solution for T2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
T. Effect of Exchange on Observed T1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
U. Effect of Exchange on Observed T2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
V. Selective Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
W. Saturation Dependence on External B1 Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
X. Saturation in the Two-Spin System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Y. Saturation in a Two-Spin Exchanging System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
IV. Magnetization Transfer Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
A. Pulsed Off-Resonance Magnetization Transfer Techniques . . . . . . . . 55
B. On-Resonance Pulsed MT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

1
ADVANCES IN IMAGING AND ELECTRON PHYSICS Copyright  C 2001 by Academic Press

Volume 118 All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

ISBN 0-12-014760-2 ISSN 1076-5670/01 $35.00
2 JOSEPH C. McGOWAN

C. A Relationship between Magnetization Transfer Contrast and T2 . . . . . 60

D. Correlation in Images of Biological Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
E. Correlation in Images of Agarose Gel Phantoms . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
F. Solving the Inverse Problem: Elucidation of Fundamental Model
Parameters from the Z-Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
V. Application in Human Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
A. Quantitative MTI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
B. Example: Applications of Magnetization Transfer to Multiple Sclerosis
and Diffuse Brain Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
VI. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Appendix I: Solution of the Complete Coupled Bloch Equations
for Two-Site Chemical Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

I. Introduction

Nearly 30 years ago, Paul LauterburÕs suggestion that nuclear magnetic reso-
nance might be used for creating images in humans (Lauterbur, 1973) set in
motion rapid change in diagnostic radiology. Development of magnetic reso-
nance imaging (MRI) technology proceeded at a phenomenal rate, and today
MRI has supplanted ionizing radiographic techniques in many diagnostic ap-
plications. For detailed noninvasive examination of soft tissues there is very
little alternative to MRI. There also exist new applications, including cerebral
functional MRI and imaging of water diffusion, that could not have been imag-
ined in the context of plain radiographs and ultrasound examinations. Magnetic
resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is also Þnding use in the clinic. Long estab-
lished as a technique for chemical analysis, it provides a number of advantages
in probing the biochemical basis for physiological processes. Combined exam-
inations including MRI and MRS can offer synergistic advantages in certain
disease evaluations.
Current research in MRI includes an emphasis on reÞning and enhancing
techniques that are still relatively young by comparison with other radiolog-
ical modalities. Additionally, there is a great deal of interest in establishing
novel forms of MRI contrast, reßecting characteristics of biological tissue that
are not probed by standard diagnostic MRI. There is also increased empha-
sis on the use of MRI-obtained information in a quantitative vice qualitative
sense. It must be understood that this could be seen to conßict with the tra-
ditional interpretation of radiological data as practiced by radiologists. The
training of a radiologist is founded upon developing the ability to form an
ÒimpressionÓof a study and to evaluate that impression in light of experience
with previously reviewed cases, patient outcomes, and ancillary information
provided by other tests and consulting physicians. The impression primarily
takes into account the apparent contrast developed between different tissues by
 MRI AND MAGNETIZATION TRANSFER 3

the imaging modality, but must also include factors such as image quality and
the presence of artifact and confounding appearance. Expert practitioners of
radiology synthesize this information instantly and can gain valuable insight
from a seemingly ambiguous study with a skill that must be classiÞed as both
art and science. Although there is ongoing research aimed at modeling these
thought processes and creating artiÞcial intelligence algorithms, replacement
of radiologists with computers is not contemplated in the near term. On the con-
trary, the objective of quantitative image analysis, and particularly quantita-
tive MRI analysis, is to provide the radiologist with additional information
that cannot be obtained via evaluation of apparent contrast. This additional
information might include an intrinsic comparison with a norm as well as
the ampliÞcation of Þne differences that may not be visually detected on the
image.
Diagnostic MRI is primarily based upon the magnetic resonance properties
of ubiquitous (in living tissue) water protons, including analysis of the em-
pirical time constants T1 and T2 that were Þrst proposed by Bloch (1946), in
parallel with the work of Purcell et al. (1946), later recognized with the shared
Nobel prize. Typically in clinical application images are obtained that reßect
(but do not measure) the time constants. More recent quantitative techniques
are used to explore mechanisms affecting the magnetic resonance properties
of a tissue that may represent an underlying phenomenon relevant to a physio-
logical question. An example of such a technique is the subject of the present
work.
In this paper we will undertake a brief review of the fundamentals of mag-
netic resonance and magnetic resonance imaging in order to motivate a discus-
sion of a technique aimed at probing interactions between MRI-visible water
protons and protons of larger molecules of physiologic interest. The underlying
assumption for this technique is that a magnetization state may be transferred
between such protons, and thus it is referred to as magnetization transfer (MT).
Contrast obtained via this mechanism is called magnetization transfer contrast
(MTC) and imaging that reßects MTC is known as magnetization transfer
imaging (MTI). Applications of MTI will be discussed in brain, together with
analysis techniques being developed to exploit the MT phenomenon. We note
that although the fundamental phenomena of magnetic resonance are described
by quantum mechanics, the observations that are essential to the arguments
presented herein can be explained with classical arguments, and for the pur-
pose of application to medical imaging and diagnosis this is nearly always
the case. The theory of magnetic resonance has been developed in both dis-
ciplines, beginning with the work of Bloch (principally a quantum physicist
who wrote the classical description of magnetic resonance) and Purcell (prin-
cipally a classical physicist who wrote the quantum description of magnetic
resonance).
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