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The Alphabet of Galen.
Pharmacy from Antiquity to the Middle Ages
The Alphabet of Galen is a critical edition and English translation of a
text describing, in alphabetical order, nearly three hundred natural prod-
ucts – including metals, aromatics, animal materials, and herbs – and their
medicinal uses. A Latin translation of earlier Greek writings on pharmacy
that have not survived, it circulated among collections of ‘authorities’ on
medicine, including Hippocrates, Galen of Pergamun, Soranus, and Ps.
Apuleius.
This work presents interesting linguistic features, including otherwise
unattested Greek and Latin technical terms and unique pharmacologi-
cal descriptions. Nicholas Everett provides a window onto the medieval
translation of ancient science and medieval conceptions of pharmacy. With
a comprehensive scholarly apparatus and a contextual introduction, The
Alphabet of Galen is a major resource for understanding the richness and
diversity of medical history.
nicholas everett is an associate professor in the Department of History
at the University of Toronto.
This page intentionally left blank
The Alphabet of Galen.
Pharmacy from Antiquity to
the Middle Ages
A Critical Edition of the Latin Text
with English Translation and
Commentary by
Nicholas Everett
University of Toronto Press
Toronto Buffalo London
© University of Toronto Press 2012
Toronto Buffalo London
www.utppublishing.com
Printed in Canada
ISBN 978-0-8020-9812-2 (cloth)
ISBN 978-0-8020-9550-3 (paper)
Printed on acid-free, 100% post-consumer recycled paper with
vegetable-based inks.
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Everett, Nicholas
The Alphabet of Galen : pharmacy from antiquity to the Middle Ages : a critical
edition of the Latin text with English translation and commentary / by Nicholas Everett.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8020-9812-2 (bound). – ISBN 978-0-8020-9550-3 (pbk.)
1. Materia medica – Early works to 1800. 2. Medicine, Greek and Roman – Early works
to 1800. 3. Pharmacy – Early works to 1800. 4. Alfabetum Galieni – Criticism and
interpretation. 5. Alfabetum Galieni – Translations into Latin. 6. Alfabetum
Galieni – Translations into English. I. Title.
RS79.E94 2012 615.1 C2011-908386-8
This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Canadian
Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences, through the Aid to Scholarly
Publications Program, using funds provided by the Social Sciences and
Humanities Research Council of Canada.
University of Toronto Press gratefully acknowledges the financial assistance of the Centre
for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto in the publication of this book.
University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial assistance to its publishing program
of the Canada Council for the Arts and the Ontario Arts Council.
University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial support of the Government of
Canada through the Canada Book Fund for its publishing activities.
For Anna-Sophia and Elias
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
List of Plates xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Signs, Symbols, and Abbreviations xvii
The Identification of Plants xix
Warning xxi
1 Introduction to the Alphabet of Galen 3
A Introduction 3
B Character of the AG and Its Date of Composition 5
C The History of the AG 9
D The Prologue and Epilogue 12
E The Liber de dynamidiis 18
F A Road through Ravenna? 21
G Self-Medicating in Late Antiquity 26
H Evaluating the AG’s Pharmacy 28
I Evaluating the AG’s Botany 31
J Conclusion 32
2 Pharmacology 36
A Introduction 36
B Natural Products and Pharmacy 36
C Sensory Perception 40
D Drug ‘Properties’ 45
E Four Main Properties, Implicit Theory, and Greek Cosmology 48
F Uis vs uirtus 52
G Humour, Bile, and Phlegm 55
viii Contents
H Explicit Theorizing in the AG 57
I The ‘Doctrine of Signatures’ and the Absence of Magic in the AG 59
J Non-Medical Uses 61
K Conclusion 62
3 Sources Compared and Lost 64
A Introduction 64
B Dioscorides 64
C Pliny 69
D Sextius Niger: The Possibility 70
E Other Lost Sources BC to AD 74
F Two Linguistic Echoes: The Diaeta Theodori and Ps. Apuleius 78
G Conclusion 81
H The Comparanda: An apparatus comparationum 82
4 Language, Latinity, and Translation 84
A Introduction: Language and Dating the AG 84
B Grammar 85
C Vocabulary 88
D Uiscidus and uiscide 92
E The -aster / -astrum Suffix 96
F Greek in the AG 103
G Conclusion 106
H Difficulties of Terminology and Translation 107
I Neologisms and Rare Words 112
5 Manuscripts 116
A Overview and Editorial Principles 116
B Variants 119
C Manuscripts 120
D The Editio princeps 134
Alphabetum Galieni (Latin Text) / The Alphabet of Galen
(English translation) 137
Bibliography 383
Index 419
A Plants and Plant Products 419
B Minerals and Mineral Products 427
Contents ix
C Animals and Animal Products 430
D Places and Place-Names 431
E Medical 433
F General 438
G Interesting or Rare Words (see also ch. 4.I) 440
H Materia medica (General) 442
This page intentionally left blank
List of Plates
1. Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Med. gr.1 fol. 3v.
2. Vatican City, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Pal. lat. 187, fol. 54.
3. Accuracy in the AG. a) Dittany of Crete AG #88 (Origanum dictamnus
L.); b) Water parsnip #158 (Sium angustifolium L., Sium erectum Huds.,
Coville).
4. Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, Gr. 1, fol. 90.
5. Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, Gr. 1, fol. 48.
6. Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, Gr. 1, fol. 31.
7. Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, Gr. 1, fol. 44.
8. Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, Gr. 1, fol. 87.
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgments
The history of medicine presents many challenges for the historian study-
ing scripts and lay-out of early medieval books who discovered a rough
little manuscript in the Vatican library with an intriguing alphabetized for-
mat, and who became fascinated with its contents. Challenges to historical
periodization quickly surface: the separation of ‘ancient’ and ‘early medi-
eval’ medicine easily falters (as the Alphabet demonstrates), distinctions
between ancient and medieval are often problematic, and from a modern
medical viewpoint, ancient/medieval medicine and pharmacy continued
into the nineteenth century and beyond. The challenges to understand
the natural world described in the Alphabet require knowledge of disci-
plines not usually part of a medievalist’s training, and their study contin-
ued the discovery.
Reliance on the work of scholars more experienced in the history of
ancient and medieval medicine will be apparent in the notes, but I have
been particularly inspired by the combination of insight and scholarly
rigour in the work of Carmelia Opsomer, John Riddle, John Scarbor-
ough, and Jerry Stannard on ancient and early medieval pharmacy. John
Scarborough has served as an e-mentor on pre-modern pharmacy, gener-
ously sharing his expertise in exemplary scholarly spirit. Cloudy Fischer
encouraged this project at an early stage and like many others I have ben-
efited greatly from his numerous publications on medical texts and their
manuscript traditions. Contact and subsequent discussions with Eliza
Glaze and Monica Green revived levels of energy needed to complete the
manuscript; Eliza Glaze generously read chapter 5 and suggested many
improvements. My thanks to the two anonymous readers selected by the
University of Toronto Press, whose advice and comments improved the
manuscript.
xiv Acknowledgments
Colleagues at the University of Toronto, in the Department of History,
the Centre for Medieval Studies, the Department of Pharmacology, and
Trinity College, inspire by word as much as example, and I have benefited
enormously from their help and advice so generously given when sought.
This book was written amid the teaching and administrative responsibili-
ties of a large public university, and I thank the many undergraduate and
postgraduate students who have patiently endured my distracted musings
on the history of medicine. Teaching with the Alphabet reaffirmed the
text’s uniqueness, and its worthiness of a proper edition with translation.
But teaching also served to control inversely the amount of commentary
given here: the myriad comparisons with other texts, possible influences,
issues of Greek-Latin translation, its manuscript tradition, and so on –
these are best left for the classroom and for specialist articles. The Univer-
sity of Toronto Press is to be justly commended for publishing a critical
edition of a Latin text, and I thank Suzanne Rancourt for her encourage-
ment and patience, even when process worked against us.
The bibliography mostly stops at 2008: a first sabbatical in 2007 pro-
vided teaching relief necessary to make completion possible, and the final
book manuscript was submitted in 2009. I tried to include recent material
that came to my attention, even if it was not fully incorporated into the
discussion (e.g., Ferraces Rodrígez 2009, Petit 2009, Totelin 2009): it is
reassuring to realize that the research behind this book is part of larger
process of discovery by scholars re-examining ancient and medieval medi-
cal texts.
For the permission to reproduce images, I thank the Biblioteca Nazi-
onale of Naples (front cover, plates 4–8), the Biblioteca Apostolica Vati-
cana (plate 2), the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek of Vienna (plate
1), Georges Fontès of Instants de Saisons (http://isaisons.free.fr/index.
htm), and those at the (now defunct) site www.szak-kert.hu (plate 3).
The interlibrary loan service at Robarts Library was superbly efficient,
and special thanks to Renata Holder, of the Gerstein Science Library, for
many kindnesses in accommodating a medievalist. Colleagues near and
far who have kindly answered inquiries or helped with bibliography
for their respective fields are thanked in the notes where appropriate,
but deserve listing here: as well as to the previously mentioned schol-
ars, thanks to Julien Barthe (Chartres), Virginia Brown† (Toronto), Paul
Cohen (Toronto), Gerard Duursma (ThLL), Ernst Gamillscheg (Vienna),
Maria Teresa Gigliozzi (Rome), Dorothea Kullmann (Toronto), Rebecca
Laposa (Toronto), Michael McVaugh (Chapel Hill, NC), Francis New-
ton (Duke), Roel Sterckx (Cambridge), Cindy Woodland (Toronto), and
Acknowledgments xv
Roger Wright (Liverpool). Sincere thanks to the colourful characters and
staff at the Remarkable Bean, in The Beach, for providing a much-needed
second office.
Familial support from Eumundi, Maroochydore, and New Orleans
never wavers and defeats the distance. This book is dedicated to Anna-
Sophia and Elias, because we learned our alphabets together. The greatest
debt of all is to Dita, my A to Z.
This page intentionally left blank
Signs, Symbols, and Abbreviations
~ ‘possibly,’ used for tentative plant identifications (see
below)
# entry number in the AG
ch. chapters 1–5 in the present book
Alex. Tral. Alexander of Tralles Therapeutica, ed. Puschmann.
(Latin), Practica Alexandrri Yatros (1504)
Cael. Acut. Caelius Aurelianus, De morbis acutis, ed. Bendz
Cael. Chron. Caelius Aurelianus, De morbis chronicis, ed. Bendz
Cael. Gyn. Caelius Aurelianus, Gynaecia, ed. M.F. Drabkin and
I.E. Drabkin
Cass. Fel. Cassius Felix, De medicina, ed. Fraisse
Celsus Aulus Cornelius Celsus, De Medicina, ed. Marx,
trans. Spencer
CLA Codices Latini Antiquiores, ed. Lowe
CMG Corpus Medicorum Graecorum
CML Corpus Medicorum Latinorum
De observ. De observantia ciborum, ed. Mazzini
Diosc. Dioscorides, De materia medica, ed. Wellmann
Diosc. Lat. Dioscorides, Materia Medica, ed. Stadler (books
II–V), ed. Mihaescu (book I)
DTh. Diaeta Theodori, ed. Sudhoff
Dyn.Vat./SGall. (Ps. Hippocratic) Dynamidia, ed. Mai (ex MSS Vat.
Pal. lat. 1088, Vat. Reg. lat 1004) and ed. Rose (ex MS
St Gall 762)
Ex herb. fem. (Ps. Dioscorides) Ex herbis femininis, ed. Kästner
Galen Simp. Galen, De simplicium medicamentorum tempera-
mentis et facultatibus, ed. K[ühn] 11, 379–892; 12,
1–377
xviii Signs, Symbols, and Abbreviations
Garg. Med. Gargilius Martialis, Medicina ex oleribus et pomis,
ed. Maire
Isidore Isidore of Seville, Etymologiarum siue Originum
libri XX, ed. Lindsay
K. Galen, Claudii Galeni Opera Omnia, ed. Kühn
LSJ Liddell and Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, rev.
Jones
Marc. Med. Marcellus (Empiricus) of Bordeaux, De medicamen-
tis, ed. Niedermann
Med. Plin. Plinii secundi iunioris qui feruntur de medicina libri
tres, ed. Önnerfors
MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica
MGH AA Auctores Antiquissimi
MS, MSS manuscript(s)
Orib. Syn. Oribasius, Synopsis. I–II ed. Mørland, III–IX ed.
Bussemaker et al.
Orib. Eup. Oribasius, Euporista, ed. Molinier
n. note
Paul Aeg. Paul of Aegina, Practica (Lib. III), ed. Heiberg
Phys. Plin. Physica Plinii Bambergensis (Plinius Valerianus), ed.
Önnerfors
Pelagonius Pelagonius, Ars veterinaria, ed. Fischer
Pliny Pliny the Elder, Natural History, ed. Jones, Rack-
ham, and Eichholz
Ps. Pseudo-
Ps. Apul. Pseudo-Apuleius, Herbarius, ed. Howald and
Sigerist
Scrib. Scribonius Largus, Compositiones, ed. Sconocchia
saec. saeculum, century (used for dating, especially
manuscripts)
sp. species
Theod. Eup. Theodorus Priscianus, Euporiston libri III, ed. Rose
Theophrastus HP Theophrastus Enquiry into Plants, ed. Wimmer,
trans. Hort
ThLL Thesaurus Linguae Latinae 1900–
TLG Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (database), University of
California, Irvine
Varro Marco Terentius Varro, De re rustica, ed. Davis
Hooper
Vitruvius Vitrivius Pollio, De architectura, ed. Granger
The Identification of Plants
The identification of plants in ancient and medieval sources is fraught with
problems, and the Alphabet of Galen is no exception. Descriptions are
brief, generic, and in cases so rudimentary that we can never be sure we
have the right species or even genus, and it is always possible that the
AG is describing a species that is now extinct or has evolved. The bino-
mial botanical identifications given in each entry are primarily taken from
consultation of André 1985, Beck 2005, and Halleux-Opsomer 1982 –
disagreement among these or uncertainty is recorded in the notes to that
entry – and also from scholarly literature where relevant, particularly the
work of Alfred C. Andrews, John Riddle, John Scarborough, and Jerry
Stannard. The symbol ~ is used in cases of considerable uncertainty (e.g.,
#90–2). A concise guide to the problems of pre-Linnaean identification
is Reveal 1996, which contains many helpful references to encyclopedias,
dictionaries, and guides to plant identification. Deciding on one common
English name among many also common is often an arbitrary act. I have
registered two English names where the literature seems to be evenly split
in using one or the other, and have consulted Grigson 1974, the polyglot
dictionaries of Perdok, ed. 1968, and Váczy 1980, and the information
given in reliable databases on the web such as www.naturalstandard.com,
and the International Plant Names Index, www.ipni.org.
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