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Guide to Microturbines
Guide to Microturbines
Bernard F.Kolanowski, BSME

THE FAIRMONT PRESS, INC.

Lilburn, Georgia

MARCEL DEKKER, INC.

New York and Basel
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kolanowski, Bernard F. Guide to microturbines/Bernard F.Kolanowski p. cm. ISBN 0-88173-
418-7 (print)—ISBN 0-88173-426-8 (electronic) 1. Gas-turbine power-plants. I. Title.
TK1076.K66 2004 621.1′99–dc22 2004046904
Guide to microturbines/Bernard F.Kolanowski.
©2004 by The Fairmont Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Fairmont Press, Inc. 700 Indian Trail, Lilburn, GA 30047 tel: 770–925–9388; fax: 770–381–9865
http://www.fairmontpress.com
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
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sISBN Master e-book ISBN

0-88173-418-7 (Print Edition) (The Fairmont Press, Inc.)

0-8247-4001-7 (Print Edition) (Marcel Dekker, Inc.)
While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher, authors, and editors
cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions.
 Dedication

I couldn’t have written this book without the encouragement of Mr. Bill Payne, former
editor of Cogeneration and Competitive Power Journal, and his recommendation to the
publisher to see such a book published. I hope I’ve confirmed Bill’s confidence in me.

AND

To my considerate wife, Mary Beth, who allowed me to take time away from her to
accomplish this.
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction and History of the Microturbine 1

Chapter 2 Design Goals and Achievements for the Microturbine 8
Chapter 3 Dual Mode Operation 19
Chapter 4 Operational and Environmental Characteristics 22
Chapter 5 Markets for the Microturbine 29
Chapter 6 Manufacturers of Microturbines 43
Chapter 7 Operating Histories 62
Chapter 8 Realism in the Future 76

Appendix A Case Histories of Microturbines in Various Applications 90

Appendix B Installation Standards for Microturbines 117
Appendix C Microturbine Power Conversion Technology Review 158
Index 190
 Acknowledgments

The following companies and individuals have contributed to this book:

Mr. Robin Mackay
Bowman Power Systems
Capstone Turbine Corporation
Elliott Energy Systems
Ingersoll-Rand Power Works
Turbec AB
Toyota Turbine Co.
ALM Turbine Co.
Orkas Energy Endurance and Dr. Ake Almgren
Mr. Jim Clyde
 Chapter 1
Introduction and History of The
Microturbine

I WAS THERE at the birth of the microturbine. North American Co-generation was
owned by Herb Ratch who knew Robin MacKay and Jim Noe, two engineers that had left
Garrett Corporation after it had merged with Allied Signal. Robin and Jim decided to
form a company to develop a small gas turbine that might be useful in the automotive
market. This was in 1988 when NoMac Energy came into being.
Funding was important to NoMac and they decided to solicit a grant from the Gas
Research Institute for those funds. Robin asked Herb to help prepare the proposal to the
GRI and as I was then representing North American Cogeneration, they solicited my help
in doing some of the writing. A prototype machine had already been manufactured by
NoMac and I not only held many of the key component parts in my hands, I saw the first
microturbine in operation at NoMac’s facility. Little did I know that some 10 years later
the microturbine would be such an instrumental part of my future.
It’s believed the word “microturbine” evolved from the fact that it is a true gas turbine
demonstrating all the characteristics of a gas turbine, but simply smaller in power output.
No formal boundary exists as to when a gas turbine becomes a microturbine or vice-
versa. However, it is generally accepted that zero to 300 kilowatts is the “range” of the
microturbine. Pratt & Whitney gave this credence when they developed their 400
kilowatt unit and called it a “mini turbine!”
NoMac’s company evolved into what is today the Capstone Turbine Company
headquartered in Chatsworth, CA. While Capstone is rightly considered the originator of
today’s microturbine, it was not until December of 1998 when commercially available
and reliable units were finally marketed. An elaborate article in the April 1, 1996 issue of
Fortune Magazine prematurely touted the advent of this “pint-sized power house.” False
starts plagued Capstone, mostly in the power electronics area, before they finally solved
the problems. After all, getting 60 hertz, AC current from a generator spinning at 96,000
rpm was no mean trick.
So, the microturbine is a recent development. The vast majority of gas turbines today
are jet engines, turboprops or turboshaft engines. Renowned for their high power to
weight ratio, extreme reliability and low maintenance, these engines dominate the aircraft
industry. Derivatives of these turbines drive electric utility generators, power pipeline
compressors and propel ships. A separate class of industrial gas turbines is used in power
generation and other heavy duty applications. Almost all of these industrial gas turbines,
however, are rated in the thousands or tens of thousands of kilowatts with more than a
few over a hundred thousand kW. The microturbine has many big cousins, but it is a gas
turbine extolling the same advantages as those brawny brutes.
The one noted advantage, however, is the ultra-low emissions that the microturbine
emits. One disadvantage is that the small size of the compressor and turbine wheels limits
 Guide to microturbines 2

the component efficiency, holds down the pressure ratio and prevents the turbine wheel
from being internally cooled. Thus, the efficiency of a small, simple cycle gas turbine is
well below that of a reciprocating engine—14% vs. 40%. Small production quantities
have meant relatively high prices compared to the 100-year-old reciprocating engine that
is installed in virtually every moving vehicle driving down the highway. These two
factors have limited market penetration.

EVOLUTION

The primary application for small gas turbines has been in the aircraft industry. Most
commercial and military airplanes use pneumatic starters to start their jet engines or
turboprops. Most air conditioning on these aircraft is air cycle and requires a source of
clean, oil free, compressed air. Simultaneously electric power is needed. Accordingly, gas
turbines were developed that have oversize compressors that can be bled to provide the
needed compressed air. At the same time the gas turbine drives an alternator through a
reduction gearbox to provide electricity that is typically 400 hertz.
When these auxiliary power units, APUs, are installed in an aircraft, the low weight,
low maintenance and high reliability overcome any concerns about high cost and fuel
consumption, especially since the operating hours are few.
In the early 1960s The Garrett Corporation adapted two of their 85 series APUs to run
on natural gas and drive 200 kW generator sets. Equipped with exhaust heat boilers, they
were installed in one of the early gas turbine-driven cogeneration systems. With the
concept proven, Garrett then developed the 831 series industrial gas turbines that were
derived from their 331 series turboprop engines. Initially rated at 218 kW, the rating was
eventually increased to 515 kW. Several hundred of these units were installed in a wide
variety of cogeneration systems. Reliability was extremely high and systems were
installed to provide precise power for the central computer systems of United,
Continental and Western airlines as well as the United States Air Force Automated Data
Weather System and also at a savings and loan institution.
The Boeing Company designed some of the first small gas turbines during World War
II. This was an exercise to learn the characteristics of gas turbines when Boeing started
the design of the B-47. Although this was a six engine jet propelled bomber, it was
originally planned to be a turboprop. Hence, Boeing’s small gas turbine had an output
shaft. Indeed, this was the first free turbine engine. Separate turbine wheels drove the
compressor and the output shaft. Thus, the output shaft speed could be varied all the way
down to stall.
The U.S. Navy noticed that the Boeing 502s were primarily stainless steel and
aluminum and thus had no magnetic signature. They purchased several hundred for mine
sweepers. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, Boeing pioneered many gas turbine-
powered applications such as anti-submarine drone helicopters, an oil cementing truck, a
bulldozer, fire engines, a fire boat, high speed launches, army tanks and even an
Indianapolis race car. Two were delivered for installation in a Thunderbird and a
Fairlane. Many were used to provide compressed air to start 707s, DC-8s and other
aircraft that did not have auxiliary power units.
 Introduction 3

The first cogeneration system powered solely by gas turbines was installed at Southern
California Gas Company in their Downey, CA, facility in 1962. The two gas turbines
were Boeing 502s rated at 140 kW each.
Boeing even developed a 100 horsepower outboard motor. It was a technical triumph.
It weighed 100 pounds less than the 80 horsepower conventional outboards that were the
largest in production in those days. It also burned less fuel. However, Boeing was not in
the consumer products business and the outboard program was terminated and three years
later Boeing sold their gas turbine business to Caterpillar
During the 1960s many automobile companies developed prototype gas turbines for
automobiles. Rover was the first. Chrysler put fifty units out in the field for testing.
General Motors and Allison built several different models. Ford drove a truck across the
United States powered by their gas turbine. Daimler Benz, Volkswagen, BMW, Toyota,
Nissan and others all built gas turbines. To solve the fuel consumption problem,
automotive gas turbines used heat exchangers to pre-heat the air going into the
combustion chamber using the normally wasted heat in the exhaust. These heat
exchangers were sometimes recuperators but more often regenerators. Whereas a
recuperator is a simple fixed boundary heat exchanger, a regenerator is a wheel that
rotates through the exhaust picking up heat, and through the compressor discharge where
it preheats the air going to the combustor.
Regenerators are compact and effective. However, they are usually ceramic and have a
problem with cracking. They also have a sealing problem as the wheel rotates through
both atmospheric pressure exhaust and high pressure compressor discharge air. Problems
with the regenerator, cost of production and turbo lag killed the automobile gas turbine.
Turbo lag was a particular challenge. To lower fuel consumption when an automobile
was stopped in traffic or at a red light, the rpm was lowered. When the light changed to
green, power was limited until the turbine spooled up which could take several seconds.
You can imagine the cacophony of horn sounds behind a turbine powered vehicle.
The most interesting vehicular gas turbine in those days was the Ford 705. It was
essentially a turbocharged, recuperated gas turbine. It achieved an efficiency of over
36%, which was better than the diesels being sold in those days. However, it was not
really a small gas turbine in that the two versions were rated at 300 and 600 horsepower.
Unfortunately, cost was a problem and Ford reverted to conventional regenerated gas
turbines.
The survivor in small gas turbines was The Garrett Corporation Garrett was one of the
Signal Companies. When Signal merged with Allied, Garrett became part of AlliedSignal
Aerospace. When AlliedSignal bought Honeywell and adopted the Honeywell name,
Garrett became part of Honeywell.
The two largest divisions of Garrett were the ArResearch Manufacturing Company of
Arizona located in Phoenix, and the AiResearch Manufacturing Company of Los Angeles
originally located in Los Angeles and later in Torrance. Phoenix was the dominant
manufacturer of small gas turbines with many tens of thousands of units installed as
auxiliary power units on board aircraft and in ground carts. The 831 series gas turbines
discussed above were built by Phoenix. However, it was Torrance where the precursors
to the modern microturbine were developed.
Torrance was by far the largest manufacturer of aerospace environmental control
systems. They are used for air conditioning and heating commercial and military aircraft.
 Guide to microturbines 4

Most of these units are air cycle and include high efficiency compressors and turbines
mounted on fluid process bearings commonly known as air bearings. These bearings
require no lubricants and no outside source of compressed air.
Torrance also built high-speed generator, high-speed refrigerant compressors,
recuperators and gas turbine control systems. With support from the gas industry and the
Department of Energy, Torrance used their expertise to develop prototypes of a radical
new 10 ton heat pump in the 1970s. A 12 horsepower, natural gas fueled, recuperated gas
turbine was used to drive a centrifugal refrigerant compressor which replaced the
electrically driven compressor in a conventional heat pump. To keep the refrigeration
system hermetic, the gas turbine drove the compressor through a magnetic coupling. To
eliminate the need for a natural gas compressor and to enlarge the components so that
they could be more efficient, a subatmospheric cycle was used.
In a conventional recuperated cycle gas turbine, outside air is compressed, preheated
in the high pressure side of a recuperator, heated to higher temperature in a combustor
and expanded through a turbine wheel, which powers both the compressor and the load. It
then enters the low pressure side of the recuperator where heat is transferred to the high
pressure side of the recuperator.
Subatmospheric cycles are different in that outside air enters the high pressure side of
the recuperator first. The air is preheated in the recuperator, further heated in the
combustor and expanded into a partial vacuum in the turbine, which drives both the
compressor and the load. As in the conventional cycle, the air then enters the low
pressure side of the recuperator where heat is transferred to the high pressure side of the
recuperator. The air then enters the compressor, which sustains the partial vacuum before
being discharged to atmosphere.
The conventional cycle and the subatmospheric cycle use essentially the same
components. Both are Brayton cycles, the difference being where the air enters and
leaves the cycle. The key advantage of the subatmospheric cycle is that the combustor is
at, or very slightly below, atmospheric pressure. Thus, natural gas at normal delivery
pressures will flow into it and there is no need for a fuel gas compressor, which is
expensive and generally inefficient.
The second advantage is that the power output is reduced by a factor approximately
equal to the pressure ratio. Thus, in a very small gas turbine the compressor and turbine
are significantly larger and therefore have higher component efficiencies. In larger units,
this becomes a disadvantage as the power available for a given piece of turbomachinery
is reduced. Another way to look at subatmospheric cycles is that its performance is
essentially the same as that of a conventional cycle that is operating at altitude.
Prototypes of the 10-ton heat pump achieved high levels of performance. They also
demonstrated the feasibility of the subatmospheric cycle. The power unit was the first
example of a gas turbine designed for production that ran on air bearings and required no
lubrication and no source of compressed air. These bearings are ideally suited for high
speed machinery where there are no gears because the load is driven at the same speed as
the gas turbine. No power take-off is needed to drive an oil pump. Indeed, there is no oil
pump, no oil sump, no oil cooler, no oil changes and no need to top off or check oil
levels. Similarly, with no water cooling requirements, elimination of open or closed water
cooling systems and the attendant treatment, pump and maintenance problems were also
eliminated.
 Introduction 5

The prototypes proved the concept and demonstrated the performance. Unfortunately,
government studies erroneously claimed that natural gas would be in short supply and
that the price of natural gas would dramatically increase relative to the price of electricity
This would cripple the economics of gas fueled heat pumps and the program was
discontinued. The fact that natural gas prices and electric prices followed the same curve
in many parts of the country was mitigated when most public utilities were regulated and
could not readily change their rates despite higher fuel costs. In this day of de-regulation
of power companies, that factor would be less of a hindrance to marketing natural gas
fueled technology.
Smaller, three ton heat pumps were also developed at Torrance for the residential
market, but suffered a similar fate even though the concept included a bottoming cycle,
which increased the output and the efficiency by about fifteen percent. Because the cycle
was subatmospheric, the exhaust discharged out of the compressor. The exhaust was hot
because of the heat of compression. Thus liquid refrigerant from the heat pump could be
pumped up to pressure and vaporized in the gas turbine’s exhaust. It could then be
expanded through a turbine wheel that would be mounted on the back of the refrigerant
compressor. The turbine wheel would then discharge the expanded refrigerant into the
same condenser that the refrigerant compressor discharged into. As both wheels used the
same refrigerant, small amounts of leakage did not matter.
The method of starting such a system was interesting. In a conventional gas turbine-
driven generator set, the generator can be used as a starter motor. But there was no
generator in this concept. However, there was liquid refrigerant and a refrigerant turbine
wheel. Thus liquid refrigerant could be contained and heated until it vaporized using an
electric resistance hater. This vaporized refrigerant could then be suddenly released to
flow through the refrigerant turbine wheel causing it to spin up. As the refrigerant turbine
was connected to the gas turbine through the magnetic coupling, the gas turbine would
also spin up and would start.
When the energy crisis eased and it was realized that natural gas would be available,
Torrance started on the design of the Advanced Energy System or AES. Basically, it was
a recuperated gas turbine-driven generator set rated at 50 kW. It used a conventional
rather than a subatmospheric cycle. The rotating group consisted of a permanent magnet
with a compressor wheel mounted on one end and a turbine wheel mounted on the other
end. The rotor group ran on air bearings so no lubrication was needed. Other than cooling
fans and a fuel pump or natural gas compressor, this assembly was the only moving part
in the system.
With an eye on fuel consumption, the AES had a recuperator. This heat exchanger
transferred heat from the hot turbine exhaust to the compressed air entering the
combustor. Thus the combustor needed less fuel to bring the air up to the required
temperature. Fuel consumption was cut roughly in half compared with a gas turbine
without a recuperator. However, there was still a lot of heat left in the exhaust. Making
use of this energy for heating or cooling a building or for an industrial process such as
drying could raise the system efficiency up into the 80% range.
Prototypes ran well. However, the Signal Companies merged with Allied and became
AlliedSignal, as mentioned above. The Garrett divisions in Torrance and Phoenix became
part of AlliedSignal Aerospace. The non-aerospace, non-military projects were
terminated and the AES became an APU where it was installed in an army tank as a
 Guide to microturbines 6

demonstration. Interestingly enough, AlliedSignal returned to this field several years later
to develop the Parallon microturbine, the rights of which were sold to General Electric.
Robin MacKay had been instrumental in many of these programs. At Boeing, he
initiated, sold and installed the cogeneration and oil field systems. He also worked on the
outboard motor. At Garrett, he was responsible for most of the cogeneration sales and
developed the concepts for the two subatmospheric gas turbine programs and the
Advance Energy System. He wrote numerous papers and held several patents.

FULFILLMENT

MacKay took early retirement from what was now AlliedSignal and contacted Jim Noe
who had been in engineering at Garrett, had worked with MacKay on several projects and
held various patents on air conditioning and on subatmospheric gas turbines. Thus was
the start of NoMac in 1988. Fortunately, AlliedSignal was gracious enough to grant
NoMac licenses to some of the patents that had been issued to MacKay and Noe while
they were at Garrett but were now assigned to AlliedSignal. The key patent licensed was
the one for the residential heat pump that Garrett had designed but not built.
The company was very small. For the first five years it consisted of MacKay and Noe
plus, intermittently, one engineer, one draftsman and one secretary. NoMac relied heavily
on outside consultants for detailed design and analysis. NoMac also entered into joint
venture with Tiernay Turbines called MTN Energy Systems. MTN stood for MacKay
Tiernay Noe. Eventually, this joint venture was dissolved.
The original objective was to develop the residential heat pump with funding from the
gas industry. The market for residential heat pumps and air conditioners was estimated to
be in the six million units per year range. The projected coefficients of performance
(COP) were 2.0 in the heating mode and 1.6 in the cooling mode. Thus, the units, if
successful would have offered dramatic savings in both energy consumption and energy
cost when compared with the best available units at the time.
A derivative version was also to be developed. The magnetic coupling and the
refrigerant compressor and turbine were to be replaced with a generator. The objective
was to build small generator sets in the three to six kilowatt range with the first
applications aimed at the recreational vehicle market.
The gas industry was very enthusiastic about the potential of a very efficient gas
fueled air conditioner. They were somewhat less enthusiastic about a very efficient gas
fueled heating system that would only use half the gas that the best residential furnace
then available used. Accordingly, the decision was made to increase the rating to 25 tons.
The new markets were to be commercial establishments such as stores and factories
where lots of air conditioning but very little heating would be needed.
With the increase in size, the subatmospheric cycle became less attractive and a
conventional positive pressure cycle was used. An analysis was also made of the potential
for an air cycle heat pump using principles developed for and commonly used on aircraft.
Jim Noe had been one of the principal designers of these systems at Garrett.
One of the problems encountered was that the air cycle system optimizes at a lower
speed than the gas turbine. This means that both systems should not share a common
shaft. The answer was to use the gas turbine to drive a generator that was electrically
 Introduction 7

connected to a motor driven, air cycle heat pump. By having a different number of poles
on the generator and on the motor, the two units could operate at different speeds. The
gas turbine-driven generator set evolved into what is now the Capstone 30 kW
microturbine.
Various contracts for demonstration or study were received. They were from Southern
California Edison for air cycle heat pumps, GRI for recuperators, NASA for recuperators,
California Air Resources Board for low emission catalytic combustors and Ford for a
generator set to keep batteries charged on an electric vehicle.
In 1993, venture capitalists invested in NoMac and the company took off. Renamed
Capstone Turbine Corporation, it has shipped several thousand microturbines that have
accumulated over three million hours of combined operation as of early 2003. Some of
the early 1999 units have exceeded 35,000 operating hours without overhaul. They are
currently rated at 30 kW and 60 kW with 200 kW in development. Typical applications
include cogeneration, hybrid electric vehicles, precise power and distributed generation.
Many are used in oil fields where they operate on casing head gas that would normally be
flared. They are also used in landfills where they operate on the low Btu gases that are
generated by the decomposing garbage. Sewage treatment plants using the anaerobic
digesters give off methane gas in the 500–600 Btu/cubic foot range that can be burned in
a microturbine with the waste heat put back into the digester in the form of hot water.
Multiple units are common and the electronic controller can handle up to 200 units
operating in parallel.
Today, Capstone is by far the dominant manufacturer of microturbines. While
AlliedSignal’s Parallon unit as marketed by Honeywell has been withdrawn from the
marketplace, others such as Bowman Energy Systems, Ingersoll-Rand Power Works,
Elliott Energy Systems and Turbec are currently manufacturing microturbines and their
products as well as Capstone’s are covered in subsequent chapters in this book.
 Chapter 2
Design Goals and Achievements For the
Microturbine

SINCE WHAT IS NOW the Capstone Turbine Corporation became the first marketable
microturbine it is proper to know what goals were sought after when this turbine was
developed for commercial operation.
The design team broke the components of the microturbine into three distinct areas:
1. Fuel System
2. The Engine
3. The Digital Power Controller

FUEL SYSTEM

Capstone wanted a versatile machine, able to burn a variety of fuels. They envisioned
both gaseous and liquid fuels could be burned in this turbine, just as many different types
of fuels were being burned in the larger gas turbines. Since the gas turbine is a mass flow
machine vs. the reciprocating engines which are a volu-metric machine, the designers
realized that as fuel quality varied the mass of gas entering the combustion chamber had
to vary. That meant the fuel system had to be designed to handle different masses of fuel
flow.
Further, it was not just the “quality” gaseous fuels such as natural gas and propane
they wanted to see burned, but also the low quality fuels coming out of land fills and
digester plants, methane laden, but often accompanied by non-combustible gases such as
carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. Therefore, for a gas turbine that was designed to burn
420,000 Btu/hour of a fuel type, and produce a nominal 30 kWh, the quantity of gas
varied with the quality of the gas. For instance, natural gas is nominally rated at 1,000
Btu/cubic foot. To burn this gas, the fuel valve had to have the ability to pass 420 cubic
feet per hour of fuel to the combustion chamber.
 Design goals and achievements 9

However, for a land fill gas having only 300–400 Btu/cubic foot heating values, the
amount of gas that has to be introduced to the combustor is 1400 cubic feet per hour at
300 Btu/cubic foot and 1050 cubic feet per hour at 400 Btu/cubic foot. The unit still
produces the nominal 30 kWh of electricity. Therefore, the fuel proportioning valve must
be larger to handle this higher volume of gas entering the combustor.
Microturbines, like any gas turbine, require higher pressure fuel to the combustion
chamber to match the pressure to which the supporting compressor pressure ratio
produces. In the Capstone Model C-30 a nominal 55 psig fuel pressure is required when
burning 1000 Btu/cf natural gas vs. as high as 70 psig fuel pressure when burning low
Btu/cf gas as found in landfills and digesters. Any decrease in these fuel pressures will
result in lower electric power output. Unlike its reciprocating brethren, gas turbine
engines do not compress the air/fuel mixture in the combustion chamber but must rely on
external compression to provide the proper combustion pressure. In the reciprocating
engine the action of the piston in an enclosed volume provides the desired pressure ratio.
Consequently, reciprocating engines can burn natural gas and low Btu gases with low
inlet pressures and usually require no external compression.
Fuel cleanliness is also important in the gas turbine. Spinning at 96,000 rpm, the
Capstone C-30 cannot tolerate moisture droplets in the fuel stream nor any solids. Any
moisture contained in the fuel must be at least 18°F above its dew point anywhere within
the fuel connections and the system between the microturbine fuel inlet and microturbine
fuel manifold block.
Fuels coming from digesters, landfills gathering systems, oil field flare gases and the
like may contain elements harmful to the turbine. While hydrogen sulfide is often present
in such gases, the Capstone microturbine can tolerate up to 7% H2S in the gas stream
without fear of corrosion affects. Generally, H2S is prevalent in oil field flare gases while
the bio-gases, the proscribed term for digester and landfill gases, may have small
percentages of H2S while containing moisture and siloxanes.
The term, bio-gas, refers to the biological conversion of waste material to methane in
an anaerobic digestion of organic waste materials. Anaerobic refers to a process that
occurs in the absence of oxygen. Digestion refers to a biological process performed by
microbes or bacteria (commonly known as bugs), which accomplishes the digestion of
food. The bugs consume the organic waste material, rendering its solid residue essentially
inert. The process occurs in the presence of water, ideally with the temperature and pH
controlled to optimize the digestion reactions and the health of the bugs. The primary
product is methane (CH4), accompanied by carbon dioxide (CO2). Typically the gas ratio
is 60:40, 60% methane to 40% carbon dioxide.
Siloxanes may be indigenous to these bio-gases. Siloxanes are compounds containing
the structural unit R2SiO where R is an organic group or hydrogen and SiO is silicon
oxide. Not all bio-gases contain siloxanes as their presence depends on the material that
is decomposing on whether silicon is present. Siloxanes are used extensively in consumer
products to act as a volatile dispersant agents to help evenly spread organic based
specialty chemicals. Deodorant, lipstick and makeup, plus many other products use
siloxanes. As man-made compounds that typically are washed down the drain or thrown
in the trash, siloxanes are always found in landfill and wastewater treatment plant
digester gas. Not all digester plants contain these throw away items. Digesters are finding
common use in dairy and hog farms as manure digesters, breweries and ethanol plants
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